Physics of electrophotography

Electrophotography is one means of arranging 100 million pigmented plastic particles on a sheet of paper to faithfully replicate an original. It is based on many diverse phenomena and employs many properties of matter. These include gaseous ionization in the charging step; photogeneration and charge transport through disordered solid-state materials in the latent-image-formation step; triboelectricity in the particle-charging step; mechanical, electrostatic, and magnetic forces to detach particles in the development and transfer steps; and the application and transfer of heat in the fixing step. In addition, it relies on a precise balance of thermorheological, chemical, and mechanical properties of large area films and small particles. This article reviews the physics of the latent-image formation and development steps.

[1]  Y. Kanemitsu,et al.  Photocarrier generation, injection, and trapping at the interface in a layered organic photoconductor: Metal‐free phthalocyanine/molecularly doped polymer , 1990 .

[2]  Dale S. Renfer,et al.  Hole transport in solid solutions of substituted triarylmethanes in bisphenol-A-polycarbonate , 1983 .

[3]  U. Vahtra,et al.  Electrophotographic process in a high speed printer , 1978 .

[4]  V. Tulagin.  Imaging Method Based on Photoelectrophoresis , 1969 .

[5]  J. Lowell,et al.  Contact electrification of metals , 1975 .

[6]  T. L. Thourson.  Xerographic development processes: A review , 1972 .

[7]  E. J. Yarmchuk,et al.  High‐resolution surface charge measurements on an organic photoconductor , 1989 .

[8]  R M SCHAFFERT,et al.  Xerography; a new principle of photography and graphic reproduction. , 1948, Journal of the Optical Society of America.

[9]  Z. Popović.  A study of carrier generation in β-metal-free phthalocyanine , 1984 .

[10]  D. Hays.  Contact electrification between mercury and polyethylene: Effect of surface oxidation , 1974 .

[11]  H. Junginger,et al.  Latent image changes during electrophotographic development , 1976 .

[12]  J. E. Stern,et al.  Contact electrification using force microscopy. , 1989, Physical review letters.

[13]  P. Borsenberger,et al.  Hole transport in binary solid solutions of triphenylamine and bisphenol‐A‐polycarbonate , 1978 .

[14]  Chung Ching Yang,et al.  Electrostatic separation of a charged-particle layer between electrodes , 1976, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices.

[15]  Yasushi Hoshino,et al.  Corona Current Control by Mesh Grid , 1981, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.

[16]  N. Karl,et al.  Studies of Organic Semiconductors for 40 Years—III , 1989 .

[17]  Harry W. Gibson,et al.  Linear free energy relations. V. Triboelectric charging of organic solids , 1975 .

[18]  W. Spear,et al.  Drift mobility techniques for the study of electrical transport properties in insulating solids , 1969 .

[19]  N. Karl.  Organic Semiconductors: Purification and Crystal Growth , 1989 .

[20]  Ranko Richert,et al.  Poole-Frenkel behavior of charge transport in organic solids with off-diagonal disorder studied by Monte Carlo simulation , 1990 .

[21]  R. Comizzoli,et al.  Electrophotography—A review , 1972 .

[22]  E. Davis.  Optical absorption, transport and photoconductivity in amorphous selenium , 1970 .

[23]  P. Cressman.  New Type of Thermoplastic Deformation , 1963 .

[24]  L. Schein,et al.  Adiabatic and non-adiabatic small polaron hopping in molecularly doped polymers , 1988 .

[25]  Fred W. Schmidlin,et al.  Theory of trap-controlled transient photoconduction , 1977 .

[26]  G. Naidis.  Modelling of plasma chemical processes in stable corona discharges at thin wires , 1992 .

[27]  J. Benda,et al.  A Model for Magnetic Brush Development in Xerographic Machines , 1981, IEEE transactions on industry applications.

[28]  Vinay Ambegaokar,et al.  Hopping Conductivity in Disordered Systems , 1971 .

[29]  Keishi Saito,et al.  A-Si thin film as a photo-receptor for electrophotography , 1980 .

[30]  J. Lowell,et al.  Contact electrification-why is it variable? , 1988 .

[31]  R. Horn,et al.  Contact Electrification and Adhesion Between Dissimilar Materials , 1992, Science.

[32]  H. Neugebauer.  Electrostatic fields in xerography , 1964 .

[33]  Gerber,et al.  Atomic force microscope. , 1986, Physical review letters.

[34]  C. Braun,et al.  Temperature dependence of intrinsic carrier generation in anthracene single crystals , 1976 .

[35]  H. Macholdt,et al.  Charging effects of organic pigments in electrophotographic toners , 1988 .

[36]  H. Bāssler,et al.  Energy-dependent incoherent singlet exciton motion in an amorphous organic solid (polyvinylcarbazole) , 1982 .

[37]  P. Gregory,et al.  Metal complex dyes as charge control agents , 1986 .

[38]  A. Rose‐Innes,et al.  The use of liquid metals for contact-charging experiments , 1987 .

[39]  R. Enck.  Two-Photon Photogeneration in Amorphous Selenium , 1973 .

[40]  I. Chen.  Xerographic Discharge Characteristics of Photoreceptors. II , 1972 .

[41]  W. Spear.  Transit Time Measurements of Charge Carriers in Amorphous Selenium Films , 1957 .

[42]  P. Borsenberger,et al.  Hole photogeneration in binary solid solutions of triphenylamine and bisphenol‐A‐polycarbonate , 1978 .

[43]  Ah-Mee Hor,et al.  A study of carrier generation mechanism in benzimidazole perylene/tetraphenyldiamine thin film structures , 1988 .

[44]  Peter J. Melz,et al.  Photogeneration in Trinitrofluorenone-Poly(N-Vinylcarbazole) , 1972 .

[45]  Bassler,et al.  Diffusion and relaxation of energy in disordered organic and inorganic materials. , 1986, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[46]  J. Henniker.  Triboelectricity in Polymers , 1962, Nature.

[47]  W. D. Gill.  Drift mobilities in amorphous charge‐transfer complexes of trinitrofluorenone and poly‐n‐vinylcarbazole , 1972 .

[48]  S. Fisichella,et al.  Adsorption isotherms on cotton of direct sky blue FF from aqueous ethanolic solutions , 1986 .

[49]  M. Silver,et al.  Carrier Yield in Molecular Systems due to Photo and High Energy β Particle lonization , 1968 .

[50]  G. Weiser.  Densities of complexed and uncomplexed molecules in amorphous films of trinitrofluorenone and poly‐n‐vinylcarbazole , 1972 .

[51]  Charles B. Duke,et al.  Molecular charge states and contact charge exchange in polymers , 1977 .

[52]  C. Duke,et al.  A critique of contact charge spectroscopy: A response , 1988 .

[53]  A. Kakuta,et al.  The Ionization Potential of Carrier Transport Materials in Relation to the Photosensitivity of Double Layered Photoreceptors , 1981, IEEE transactions on industry applications.

[54]  R. C. Enck,et al.  Onsager mechanism of photogeneration in amorphous selenium , 1975 .

[55]  A. Mozumder,et al.  THEORY OF RADIATION CHEMISTRY. VIII. IONIZATION OF NONPOLAR LIQUIDS BY RADIATION IN THE ABSENCE OF EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD. , 1967 .

[56]  Damodar M. Pai,et al.  Trap-controlled hopping transport , 1984 .

[57]  M. Abkowitz,et al.  Common features in the transport behaviour of diverse glassy solids: Exploring the role of disorder , 1991 .

[58]  M. Silver,et al.  Carrier Generation and Recombination in Anthracene , 1967 .

[59]  P. Sheng.  Feature article: Electronic transport in granular metal films† , 1992 .

[60]  L. Schein,et al.  Physics of Electrophotography , 1986 .

[61]  J. C. Knights,et al.  Photogeneration of charge carriers in amorphous selenium , 1974 .

[62]  H. Rabitz,et al.  High‐temperature vibrational–rotational relaxation in He–H2 , 1978 .

[63]  Michael F. Shlesinger,et al.  Time‐Scale Invariance in Transport and Relaxation , 1991 .

[64]  Ronald Waters,et al.  Characteristics of the stabilized glow discharge in air , 1975 .

[65]  E. M. Conwell,et al.  Direct observation of ion transfer in contact charging between a metal and a polymer , 1990 .

[66]  Minoru Umeda,et al.  Photocarrier Generation in a Layered Organic Photoreceptor Containing Azo Pigment , 1990 .

[67]  Xerography from the beginning , 1989 .

[68]  I. Brodie,et al.  Electrophoretic Development of Electrostatic Charge Images from Colloidal Suspensions of Carbon , 1969 .

[69]  P. Selényi.  On the Electrographic Recording of Fast Electrical Phenomena , 1938 .

[70]  A. Rose‐Innes,et al.  Charge transfer in metal‐polymer contacts and the validity of ’’contact charge spectroscopy’’ , 1979 .

[71]  Damodar M. Pai,et al.  Hole transport in solid solutions of a diamine in polycarbonate , 1984 .

[72]  A. R. Melnyk.  Hole emission defect states in amorphous As2Se3 , 1980 .

[73]  C. Kao.  Electric field, transfer, and spread functions in xerographic image studies , 1973 .

[74]  D. Hays.  Electrical Properties of Conductive Two-Component Xerographic Developer , 1987, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.

[75]  A. Rose‐Innes,et al.  A critique of contact charge spectroscopy , 1988 .

[76]  J. Mort,et al.  Charge transport and photogeneration in molecularly doped polymers , 1976 .

[77]  L. Onsager.  Initial Recombination of Ions , 1938 .

[78]  F. W. Schmidlin,et al.  Physical theory of charged pigment electrophotography , 1972 .

[79]  W. R. Harper.  The Volta effect as a cause of static electrification , 1951, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[80]  A. Hughes.  Photoconductivity in Crystals , 1936 .

[81]  P. Watson,et al.  Contact charge accumulation and reversal on polystyrene and PTFE films upon repeated contacts with mercury , 1989 .

[82]  H. Gibson,et al.  Linear free energy relationships. Triboelectric charging of poly(olefins) , 1977 .

[83]  E. Montroll,et al.  Anomalous transit-time dispersion in amorphous solids , 1975 .

[84]  J. Lowell,et al.  Contact electrification of polymers by metals , 1985 .

[85]  G. C. Hartmann,et al.  Transient photostimulated charge transfer from a photoconductor to an insulating fluid , 1975 .

[86]  P. J. Regensburger.  OPTICAL SENSITIZATION OF CHARGE CARRIER TRANSPORT IN POLY(N‐VINYL CARBAZOLE) * , 1968, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[87]  T. Holstein,et al.  Studies of polaron motion: Part II. The “small” polaron , 1959 .

[88]  M. Štolka,et al.  The origin of dispersion of transiting charge carriers in molecular l y doped polymers , 1988 .

[89]  W. Haas.  Liquid Crystal adiSplay Research: The First Fifteen Years , 1983 .

[90]  L. Onsager.  Deviations from Ohm's Law in Weak Electrolytes , 1934 .

[91]  G. Pfister,et al.  Photoelectronic Properties of Disordered Organic Solids: Molecularly-Doped Polymers , 1979 .

[92]  I. P. Batra,et al.  Photocurrents Due to Pulse Illumination in the Presence of Trapping , 1970 .

[93]  H. Bässler,et al.  Localized states and electronic transport in single component organic solids with diagonal disorder , 1981 .

[94]  Toshiro Saito,et al.  Photocarrier Generation Process of Phthalocyanine Particles Dispersed in a Polymer: Effects of Pigment Particle Size, Polymer Matrix and Addition of Fine γ-Alumina Particles , 1991 .

[95]  J. Noolandi.  Multiple-trapping model of anomalous transit-time dispersion in a − S e , 1977 .

[96]  D. K. Donald.  Electrostatic Contribution to Powder‐Particle Adhesion , 1969 .

[97]  G. Pfister.  Hopping transport in a molecularly doped organic polymer , 1977 .

[98]  J. Lowell,et al.  Charge transfer in metal/polymer contacts , 1987 .

[99]  Damodar M. Pai,et al.  Transient Photoconductivity in Poly(N‐vinylcarbazole) , 1970 .

[100]  D. K. Donald,et al.  The effects of electric fields on tonerCarrier adhesion in xerographic development , 1972 .

[101]  C. Braun,et al.  Electric‐Field and Temperature Dependence of Photoconductivity , 1968 .

[102]  B. Springett.  Application of selenium-tellurium photoconductors to the xerographic copying and printing processes , 1988 .

[103]  K. Metcalfe.  Liquid developers for xerography , 1955 .

[104]  H Edels,et al.  Radial temperature measurements of alternating current arcs , 1969 .