Perception of forces exerted by objects in collision events.

Impressions of force are commonplace in the visual perception of objects interacting. It is proposed that these impressions have their source in haptically mediated experiences of exertion of force in actions on objects. Visual impressions of force in interactions between objects occur by a kind of generalization of the proprioceptive impression of force to interactions between objects on the basis of matching to stored representations of actions on objects carried out by the perceiver. Such experiences give rise to a distinctive perceptual interpretation of interactions between objects as involving force exerted by one object acting against resistance offered by the other object. Active, moving objects are seen as exerting force; inactive objects are seen as offering varying degrees of resistance and not as exerting force unless there is reason to think that they acted back on the active object. The results of 3 experiments in which people viewed simple animations of objects colliding and made judgments of force and resistance supported several predictions made by this account.

[1]  HighWire Press.  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , 1781, The London Medical Journal.

[2]  A. Charpentier.  Experimental study of some aspects of weight perception , 1891 .

[3]  J. F. Brown.  The visual perception of velocity , 1931 .

[4]  F. Heider,et al.  An experimental study of apparent behavior , 1944 .

[5]  A. Gemelli,et al.  The influence of the subject's attitude in perception , 1958 .

[6]  T. Natsoulas.  Principles of momentum and kinetic energy in the perception of causality. , 1961, The American journal of psychology.

[7]  R. C. Oldfield.  THE PERCEPTION OF CAUSALITY , 1963 .

[8]  R. Over.  Explanations of geometrical illusions. , 1968, Psychological bulletin.

[9]  David Hume.  A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects , 1972 .

[10]  Shelley E. Taylor,et al.  Point of view and perceptions of causality. , 1975 .

[11]  Ej Wood.  European journal of science education , 1979 .

[12]  Andrea A. diSessa,et al.  Unlearning Aristotelian Physics: A Study of Knowledge-Based Learning , 1982, Cogn. Sci..

[13]  J. Minstrell.  Explaining the ’’at rest’’ condition of an object , 1982 .

[14]  J C Rothwell,et al.  Manual motor performance in a deafferented man. , 1982, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[15]  J. Clement.  Students’ preconceptions in introductory mechanics , 1982 .

[16]  S. Runeson.  On visual perception of dynamic events , 1983 .

[17]  B. Andersson,et al.  The experiential gestalt of causation: a common core to pupils’ preconceptions in science , 1986 .

[18]  A. Leslie,et al.  Do six-month-old infants perceive causality? , 1987, Cognition.

[19]  John J. Clement,et al.  Overcoming students' misconceptions in physics: the rold of anchoring institutions and analogical validity , 1987 .

[20]  M T Turvey,et al.  Haptically perceiving the distances reachable with hand-held objects. , 1988, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[21]  Leonard Talmy,et al.  Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition , 1987, Cogn. Sci..

[22]  J. Raymond.  The interaction of target size and background pattern on perceived velocity during visual tracking , 1988, Perception & psychophysics.

[23]  David E. Brown,et al.  Overcoming misconceptions via analogical reasoning: abstract transfer versus explanatory model construction , 1989 .

[24]  M T Turvey,et al.  Perceiving extents of rods by wielding: haptic diagonalization and decomposition of the inertia tensor. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[25]  L. Cohen,et al.  Infant perception of a causal event , 1990 .

[26]  R. Day,et al.  Perceived Causality Occurs with Stroboscopic Movement of One or Both Stimulus Elements , 1990, Perception.

[27]  Jon Ogborn,et al.  A causal framework for analysing alternative conceptions , 1992 .

[28]  E. Sedgwick,et al.  The perceptions of force and of movement in a man without large myelinated sensory afferents below the neck. , 1992, The Journal of physiology.

[29]  D H Ballard,et al.  Hand-eye coordination during sequential tasks. , 1992, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[30]  L. Allan.  Human contingency judgments: rule based or associative? , 1993, Psychological bulletin.

[31]  Susan J. Lederman,et al.  Extracting object properties through haptic exploration. , 1993, Acta psychologica.

[32]  S. Runeson,et al.  The indispensability of precollision kinematics in the visual perception of relative mass , 1993, Perception & psychophysics.

[33]  Patricia W. Cheng,et al.  Separating Causal Laws from Casual Facts: Pressing the Limits of Statistical Relevance , 1993 .

[34]  E. Bushnell,et al.  Motor development and the mind: the potential role of motor abilities as a determinant of aspects of perceptual development. , 1993, Child development.

[35]  A. diSessa.  Toward an Epistemology of Physics , 1993 .

[36]  Laterality effects in the haptic horizontal-vertical illusion , 1993 .

[37]  L. Cohen,et al.  How infants perceive a simple causal event , 1993 .

[38]  L. Oakes.  Development of Infants' Use of Continuity Cues in Their Perception of Causality. , 1994 .

[39]  J. Gray,et al.  The contents of consciousness: A neuropsychological conjecture , 1995, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[40]  David R. Shanks,et al.  The Psychology of Associative Learning , 1995 .

[41]  J. Cole,et al.  Body image and body schema in a deafferented subject , 1995 .

[42]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. , 1996, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[43]  J J Koenderink,et al.  Haptic Aftereffect of Curved Surfaces , 1996, Perception.

[44]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  Action recognition in the premotor cortex. , 1996, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[45]  M T Turvey,et al.  Weight perception and the haptic size-weight illusion are functions of the inertia tensor. , 1996, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[46]  P. Cheng.  From covariation to causation: A causal power theory. , 1997 .

[47]  P. White,et al.  Phenomenal causality: impressions of pulling in the visual perception of objects in motion. , 1997, The American journal of psychology.

[48]  A. Slater.  Perceptual Development: Visual, Auditory, and Speech Perception in Infancy. Studies in Developmental Psychology. , 2000 .

[49]  C. Michaels,et al.  Higher order and lower order variables in the visual perception of relative pulling force. , 1998, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[50]  Renée Baillargeon,et al.  The development of calibration-based reasoning about collision events in young infants , 1998, Cognition.

[51]  Melissa A. Redford,et al.  The Development of Infant Causal Perception , 1998 .

[52]  M. Land,et al.  The Roles of Vision and Eye Movements in the Control of Activities of Daily Living , 1998, Perception.

[53]  Alan B. Milne,et al.  Impressions of enforced disintegration and bursting in the visual perception of collision events , 1999 .

[54]  D. Wolpert,et al.  Spatio-Temporal Prediction Modulates the Perception of Self-Produced Stimuli , 1999, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[55]  E. Hartmann.  Perceptual Development: Visual, Auditory, and Speech Perception in Infancy , 1999 .

[56]  Peter A. White,et al.  Naive analysis of food web dynamics: a study of causal judgment about complex physical systems , 2000, Cogn. Sci..

[57]  Henrik Olsson,et al.  Visual perception of dynamic properties: cue heuristics versus direct-perceptual competence. , 2000, Psychological review.

[58]  P. Juslin,et al.  Visual perception of dynamic properties: cue heuristics versus direct-perceptual competence. , 2000, Psychological review.

[59]  Patrice D. Tremoulet,et al.  Perceptual causality and animacy , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[60]  Mtw,et al.  Computation, causation, and discovery , 2000 .

[61]  P. Spirtes,et al.  Causation, Prediction, and Search, 2nd Edition , 2001 .

[62]  R. Johansson,et al.  Eye–Hand Coordination in Object Manipulation , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[63]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the understanding and imitation of action , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[64]  D. Wolpert,et al.  Abnormalities in the awareness of action , 2002, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[65]  Stella Vosniadou,et al.  The changing meaning of Force. , 2002 .

[66]  C. Frith.  Attention to action and awareness of other minds , 2002, Consciousness and Cognition.

[67]  Tom Burr,et al.  Causation, Prediction, and Search , 2003, Technometrics.

[68]  Sarah-Jayne Blakemore,et al.  Deluding the motor system , 2003, Consciousness and Cognition.

[69]  R. Johansson,et al.  Action plans used in action observation , 2003, Nature.

[70]  François Jouen,et al.  Weight perception in 12-month-old infants , 2003 .

[71]  P. White.  Making causal judgments from the proportion of confirming instances: the pCI rule. , 2003, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[72]  P. White,et al.  Visual impressions of penetration in the perception of objects in motion , 2003 .

[73]  P. Wolff,et al.  Models of causation and the semantics of causal verbs , 2003, Cognitive Psychology.

[74]  Joshua B. Tenenbaum,et al.  Inferring causal networks from observations and interventions , 2003, Cogn. Sci..

[75]  David M. Sobel,et al.  A theory of causal learning in children: causal maps and Bayes nets. , 2004, Psychological review.

[76]  W. Ahn,et al.  The meaning and computation of causal power: comment on Cheng (1997) and Novick and Cheng (2004). , 2005, Psychological review.

[77]  P. White.  The power PC theory and causal powers: comment on Cheng (1997) and Novick and Cheng (2004). , 2005, Psychological review.

[78]  J. Tenenbaum,et al.  Structure and strength in causal induction , 2005, Cognitive Psychology.

[79]  R. Baillargeon,et al.  Can a Self-Propelled Box Have a Goal? , 2005, Psychological science.

[80]  P. Haggard.  Conscious intention and motor cognition , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[81]  Michèle Molina,et al.  Exploration of the newborn's manual activity: A window onto early cognitive processes , 2005 .

[82]  S. Carey,et al.  The perception of causality in infancy. , 2006, Acta psychologica.

[83]  A. Schlottmann,et al.  Perceived physical and social causality in animated motions: spontaneous reports and ratings. , 2006, Acta psychologica.

[84]  A. Cohen.  Contributions of invariants, heuristics, and exemplars to the visual perception of relative mass. , 2006, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[85]  M. Land.  Eye movements and the control of actions in everyday life , 2006, Progress in Retinal and Eye Research.

[86]  P. White.  The causal asymmetry. , 2006, Psychological review.

[87]  P. Wolff.  Representing causation. , 2007, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[88]  D. Shanks,et al.  Models of covariation-based causal judgment: A review and synthesis , 2007, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[89]  C. Mckenzie,et al.  A Bayesian view of covariation assessment , 2007, Cognitive Psychology.

[90]  Masasi Hattori,et al.  Adaptive Non-Interventional Heuristics for Covariation Detection in Causal Induction: Model Comparison and Rational Analysis , 2007, Cogn. Sci..

[91]  P. White.  Impressions of force in visual perception of collision events: A test of the causal asymmetry hypothesis , 2007, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[92]  Brian J. Scholl,et al.  The origins of causal perception: Evidence from postdictive processing in infancy , 2008, Cognitive Psychology.

[93]  Pär Nyström,et al.  The infant mirror neuron system studied with high density EEG , 2008, Social neuroscience.

[94]  G. Csibra.  Goal attribution to inanimate agents by 6.5-month-old infants , 2008, Cognition.

[95]  A. Streri,et al.  The limits of newborn's grasping to detect texture in a cross-modal transfer task. , 2008, Infant behavior & development.

[96]  J. Sommerville,et al.  Experience matters: the impact of doing versus watching on infants' subsequent perception of tool-use events. , 2008, Developmental psychology.

[97]  A. Noē.  Direct Perception , 2022 .