The Impact of Content and Structure on a Case-Based Approach to Developing Leadership Skills.

Case studies are frequently used in a number of organisational training settings. However, there has been little empirical study of how these cases can be most effective for developing leadership skills. The present study tests the impact of case content and structural features on the acquisition and transfer of leadership skills. Content features include explanations for failure, lessons learned and making forecasts. Structural features include chunking information, advanced organisers and presenting related types of information together. Results suggest that training using case studies is most effective when both case content and structural features are either present or absent. Having content without structure can hinder performance. Furthermore, participants in the case-based training conditions outperformed participants in the principle-based training conditions on a learning task. The implications for the development of Tacit Knowledge and leadership skills are discussed.

[1]  E. Salas,et al.  Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. , 1993 .

[2]  Robert J. Sternberg,et al.  Practical intelligence in real-world pursuits: The role of tacit knowledge. , 1985 .

[3]  Gerhard Weber.  Episodic Learner Modeling , 1996 .

[4]  G. Yukl,et al.  Leadership in Organizations , 1981 .

[5]  Paul J. Feltovich,et al.  Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices , 1981, Cogn. Sci..

[6]  Morgan W. McCall,et al.  The lessons of experience , 1988 .

[7]  George Rosier.  Using reflective reports to improve the case method , 2002 .

[8]  Janet L. Kolodner,et al.  An introduction to case-based reasoning , 1992, Artificial Intelligence Review.

[9]  Geoff Easton,et al.  LEARNING FROM CASE STUDIES , 1992 .

[10]  D. Perkins,et al.  Rocky Roads to Transfer: Rethinking Mechanism of a Neglected Phenomenon , 1989 .

[11]  Kenneth D. Forbus,et al.  MAC/FAC: A Model of Similarity-Based Retrieval , 1995, Cogn. Sci..

[12]  Irwin L. Goldstein,et al.  Training and Development in Organizations , 1989 .

[13]  Eugene R. Schnell.  A Case Study of Executive Coaching as a Support Mechanism During Organizational Growth and Evolution. , 2005 .

[14]  Judith Jordan,et al.  A Complex Case: Using the case study method to explore uncertainty and ambiguity in undergraduate business education , 2002 .

[15]  R. Mayer.  Different problem-solving competencies established in learning computer programming with and without meaningful models. , 1975 .

[16]  I. Goldstein.  Training in Work Organizations , 1980 .

[17]  M. Eraut.  Non-formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional work. , 2000, The British journal of educational psychology.

[18]  Robert C. Giambatista,et al.  Nothing Succeeds Like Succession: A Critical Review of Leader Succession Literature Since 1994 , 2005 .

[19]  M. Uhl‐Bien,et al.  Leadership in complex organizations , 2001 .

[20]  Stephen J. Carroll,et al.  THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING METHODS—EXPERT OPINION AND RESEARCH , 1972 .

[21]  Susan M. Barnett,et al.  When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. , 2002, Psychological bulletin.

[22]  R. Lipshitz,et al.  Coaching on Leadership , 1992 .

[23]  T. E. Lange,et al.  Remote analogical reminding , 1996, Memory & cognition.

[24]  Brian H. Ross,et al.  Effects of principle explanation and superficial similarity on analogical mapping in problem solving. , 1997 .

[25]  Jennifer Hedlund,et al.  Identifying and assessing tacit knowledge: understanding the practical intelligence of military leaders , 2003 .

[26]  Peter A. C. Smith.  Action Learning and Reflective Practice in Project Environments that are Related to Leadership Development , 2001 .

[27]  M. Bassok.  Transfer of domain-specific problem-solving procedures , 1990 .

[28]  Janet L. Kolodner,et al.  The MEDIATOR: Analysis of an Early Case-Based Problem Solver , 1989, Cogn. Sci..

[29]  K. Holyoak,et al.  Schema induction and analogical transfer , 1983, Cognitive Psychology.

[30]  Matthew W. Lewis,et al.  Self-Explonations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems , 1989, Cogn. Sci..

[31]  David J. Woehr,et al.  Rater training for performance appraisal: A quantitative review , 1994 .

[32]  M. Arthur,et al.  The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory , 1993 .

[33]  L. R. Novick.  Analogical transfer, problem similarity, and expertise. , 1988, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[34]  B. Ross,et al.  Generalizing from the use of earlier examples in problem solving , 1990 .

[35]  R. Schank,et al.  Knowledge and Memory: The Real Story , 1995 .

[36]  M. Mumford.  Pathways to Outstanding Leadership: A Comparative Analysis of Charismatic, Ideological, and Pragmatic Leaders , 2006 .

[37]  D. Dahl,et al.  The Influence and Value of Analogical Thinking during New Product Ideation , 2002 .

[38]  Michael J. Burke,et al.  A Cumulative Study of the Effectiveness of Managerial Training , 1986 .

[39]  Craig C. Lundberg,et al.  Case Writing Reconsidered , 2001 .

[40]  Valerie Stead.  Mentoring: A Model for Leadership Development? , 2005 .

[41]  J. Conger,et al.  Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed , 2002 .

[42]  D. Day.  Leadership development:: A review in context , 2000 .

[43]  J. Colquitt,et al.  Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: a meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[44]  R. Sternberg.  Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence , 1984 .

[45]  L. Eastman,et al.  Linking management selection and development through stretch assignments , 1995 .

[46]  G. Logan.  Toward an instance theory of automatization. , 1988 .

[47]  William F. Crittenden,et al.  A social learning theory of cross-functional case education , 2005 .

[48]  Lelyn D. Saner,et al.  Expertise in ill-defined problem-solving domains as effective strategy use , 2005, Memory & cognition.

[49]  John R. Anderson.  Problem solving and learning. , 1993 .

[50]  D. Gentner,et al.  Learning and Transfer: A General Role for Analogical Encoding , 2003 .

[51]  M. Daudelin.  Learning from experience through reflection , 1996 .

[52]  Robert M. Fulmer,et al.  The evolving paradigm of leadership development , 1997 .

[53]  Michael D. Mumford,et al.  Development of leadership skills: Experience and timing , 2000 .

[54]  Of Windmills and Rope Dancing: The Instructional Value of Narrative Structures , 1987 .

[55]  Janet L. Kolodner,et al.  Case-Based Reasoning , 1989, IJCAI 1989.

[56]  Christopher K. Riesbeck,et al.  Inside Case-Based Reasoning , 1989 .

[57]  D. Gentner,et al.  Lessons from Analogical Reasoning in the Teaching of Negotiation , 1999 .

[58]  M. Segers,et al.  The Relation Between Assessment Practices and Outcomes of Studies: The Case of Research on Prior Knowledge , 1999 .

[59]  Pamela J. Hinds,et al.  Bothered by abstraction: the effect of expertise on knowledge transfer and subsequent novice performance. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[60]  Michael D. Mumford,et al.  Leadership and social intelligence: Linking social perspectiveness and behavioral flexibility to leader effectiveness , 1991 .

[61]  Lauretta M. Reeves,et al.  The Role of Content and Abstract Information in Analogical Transfer , 1994 .

[62]  R. Sternberg,et al.  The g-ocentric View of Intelligence and Job Performance Is Wrong , 1993 .

[63]  Thomas R. Carretta,et al.  Role of ability and prior knowledge in complex training performance. , 1995 .

[64]  E. A. Fleishman,et al.  Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems. , 2000 .

[65]  C. Argyris.  Some Limitations of the Case Method: Experiences in a Management Development Program , 1980 .

[66]  Richard D. Teach,et al.  The Role of Classroom Techniques in Teaching Management Skills , 1993 .

[67]  D. Gentner,et al.  Similarity and the development of rules , 1998, Cognition.

[68]  Winston Bennett,et al.  A META-ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONS AMONG TRAINING CRITERIA , 1997 .

[69]  P. Northouse.  Leadership: Theory and Practice , 2000 .

[70]  Nancy J. Cooke,et al.  Training the human information processor: A review of cognitive models. , 1989 .

[71]  B. Ross.  Distinguishing Types of Superficial Similarities: Different Effects on the Access and Use of Earlier Problems , 1989 .

[72]  R. Sternberg.  A systems model of leadership: WICS. , 2007, The American psychologist.

[73]  William D. Milheim.  Utilizing Case Studies for Teaching Effective Instructional Design Principles. , 1996 .

[74]  M. Doyle,et al.  Coaching at the top. , 1996 .

[75]  B. Ross.  This is like that: The use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects. , 1987 .

[76]  N. Charness,et al.  Expert Performance Its Structure and Acquisition , 2002 .

[77]  Dedre Gentner,et al.  Transfer of training as analogical mapping , 1988, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern..

[78]  B. Ross.  Remindings and their effects in learning a cognitive skill , 1984, Cognitive Psychology.

[79]  K. Holyoak,et al.  Surface and structural similarity in analogical transfer , 1987, Memory & cognition.

[80]  Michael D. Mumford,et al.  Basic and cross-functional skills. , 1999 .

[81]  Dedre Gentner,et al.  Learning by Analogical Bootstrapping , 2001 .

[82]  Kurt VanLehn,et al.  Analogy Events: How Examples are Used During Problem Solving , 1998, Cogn. Sci..

[83]  F. Fiedler.  Research on Leadership Selection and Training: One View of the Future , 1996 .

[84]  P. Northouse.  Leadership theory and practice, 4th ed. , 2007 .

[85]  L. Berkowitz,et al.  External validity is more than skin deep: Some answers to criticisms of laboratory experiments. , 1982 .

[86]  Jone Rymer,et al.  Defining the Genre of the "Case Write-Up" , 1999 .

[87]  Kristian J. Hammond,et al.  Case-based planning: A framework for planning from experience ☆ , 1990 .

[88]  J. Kolodner.  Educational implications of analogy. A view from case-based reasoning. , 1997, The American psychologist.

[89]  Michael D. Mumford,et al.  The origins of vision: Effects of reflection, models, and analysis , 2005 .

[90]  A. Bandura,et al.  Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management , 1989 .

[91]  Deidra J. Schleicher,et al.  On Selecting Psychology Graduate Students: Validity Evidence for a Test of Tacit Knowledge , 2004 .

[92]  D. Gentner,et al.  Analogical encoding facilitates knowledge transfer in negotiation , 1999, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[93]  M. D. Dunnette,et al.  An alternative selection procedure: The low-fidelity simulation. , 1990 .

[94]  John R. Anderson,et al.  The role of examples and rules in the acquisition of a cognitive skill. , 1997, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[95]  Cynthia M. Sifonis,et al.  The role of graded category structure in imaginative thought , 2002, Memory & cognition.

[96]  R. V. Rasmussen.  The Self-Analytic Case Method: Changing Learners' Attitudes About the Utility of the Applied Behavioral Sciences , 1984 .