Reverse Modality Effects on Spatial Knowledge Instruction: When Reading is Better than Listening

This study investigated the reversed modality principle in spatial learning content with two different modality conditions. Participants were randomly assigned to two groups (visual text and spoken text). The findings revealed no significant differences in terms of mental effort for the instruction and assessments, the usability level, and perceived usefulness. However, the significant effects on three assessments showed that the visual text group performed better than the spoken text group. The results support a reverse modality effect. This study provides theoretical support for establishing boundaries for the modality principle as well as practical implication for instructional designers. Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis The modality principle in multimedia learning has received considerable research support over the last few decades (Ginns, 2005; Mayer, 2001; Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). This principle states that learning from words and pictures is improved when written or on-screen text is replaced with spoken text. A theoretical rationale for this principle is provided by Baddeley’s (1992) model of working memory. According to Baddeley, working memory contains two sub-systems, one for processing visual information and another for processing verbal information. Presenting textual information visually (as on-screen text) during multimedia learning is purported to overload the visual subsystem and strain attentional resources. This occurs because of the need to temporarily hold and process text along with pictorial information (e.g., animation) in the same memory subsystem (Mayer & Moreno, 1998). However, according to the modality principle, this unimodal presentation format can be improved by employing a bimodal format, wherein textual information is presented auditorily and pictorial information is presented visually. This presentation format is purported to reduce cognitive load by using the total capacity of working memory (both visual and verbal subsystems) more efficiently (Tabbers, Martens, & van Merrienboer, 2004). The modality principle has been linked to reduced mental effort and study time during instruction and to improved performance on retention, transfer, and matching tests (Tabbers et al., 2004). The modality principle has been linked to reduce mental effort and study time during instruction and to improved performance on retention, transfer, and matching tests (Ginns, 2005; Tabbers et al., 2004). The modality principle has also been validated across a variety of computer-based media, such as multimedia explanations, agent based computer games, and virtual reality (Moreno, 2006). Notwithstanding the research support for the modality principle, recent research has shown that the principle may not apply to all multimedia learning situations. For example, Tabbers et al. (2004) found that a visual presentation of text was superior to a spoken presentation when learners were given control over the pacing of the instruction. There is also evidence that visual text may be superior to spoken text if the subject matter pertains to learning spatial relations (Penny, 1989). In the current study we examined the generalizability of the modality principle to an instructional situation that prior research suggests may be conducive to a reverse modality effect. That is, where on-screen text is superior to spoken text. To create this situation the following elements were incorporated into the treatment materials: 1) learner control of instructional content, and 2) a learning task with a significant spatial component, Our hypothesis was that learners studying on-screen text would outperform those studying spoken text due to the presence of learning conditions favorable to a reverse modality effect in multimedia learning.