Additive Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Material Objects: A Review

Functionally graded materials (FGM) have recently attracted a lot of research attention in the wake of the recent prominence of additive manufacturing (AM) technology. The continuously varying spatial composition profile of two or more materials affords FGM object to simultaneously possess ideal properties of multiple different materials. Additionally, emerging technologies in AM domain enables one to make complex shapes with customized multifunctional material properties in an additive fashion, where laying down successive layers of material creates an object. In this paper, we focus on providing an overview of research at the intersection of AM techniques and FGM objects. We specifically discuss the FGM modeling representation schemes and outline a classification system to classify existing FGM representation methods. We also highlight the key aspects such as the part orientation, slicing, and path planning processes that are essential for fabricating a quality FGM object through the use of multi-material AM techniques.Copyright © 2016 by ASME

[1]  Andrew Y. C. Nee,et al.  Multi‐objective optimization of part‐ building orientation in stereolithography , 1995 .

[2]  Marek Tłaczała,et al.  Applications of functionally graded materials in optoelectronic devices , 2005 .

[3]  Kamran Mumtaz,et al.  Laser melting functionally graded composition of Waspaloy® and Zirconia powders , 2007 .

[4]  Hiroshi Ishii,et al.  xPrint: A Modularized Liquid Printer for Smart Materials Deposition , 2016, CHI.

[5]  M. Domack,et al.  Development of nickel‐titanium graded composition components , 2005 .

[6]  Wolfgang A. Kaysser,et al.  Functionally graded materials for sensor and energy applications , 2003 .

[7]  Puneet Tandon,et al.  Slice Generation and Data Retrieval Algorithm for Rapid Manufacturing of Heterogeneous Objects , 2014 .

[8]  Kazuo Okano,et al.  Application of SiC-Si functionally gradient material to thermoelectric energy conversion device , 1996 .

[9]  N. Shamsaei,et al.  Mechanical Properties and Microstructural Features of Direct Laser-Deposited Ti-6Al-4V , 2015 .

[10]  M. Boyce,et al.  Co‐Continuous Composite Materials for Stiffness, Strength, and Energy Dissipation , 2011, Advanced materials.

[11]  Richard H. Crawford,et al.  Volumetric multi-texturing for functionally gradient material representation , 2001, SMA '01.

[12]  J. Xi,et al.  Modeling and processing of functionally graded materials for rapid prototyping , 2004 .

[13]  Alexander A. Pasko,et al.  Constructive Hypervolume Modeling , 2001, Graph. Model..

[14]  Robert J. Wood,et al.  A 3D-printed, functionally graded soft robot powered by combustion , 2015, Science.

[15]  André R Studart,et al.  Additive manufacturing of biologically-inspired materials. , 2016, Chemical Society reviews.

[16]  M. Gasik,et al.  Corrosion Resistance of Homogeneous and FGM Coatings , 2005 .

[17]  Prakhar Jaiswal,et al.  Assembly-based conceptual 3D modeling with unlabeled components using probabilistic factor graph , 2016, Comput. Aided Des..

[18]  A. K. Bhaduri,et al.  Joining of titanium to 304L stainless steel by friction welding , 2009 .

[19]  Ganesh Subbarayan,et al.  HiGeoM: A symbolic framework for a unified function space representation of trivariate solids for isogeometric analysis , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[20]  S. Vel,et al.  Exact Solution for Thermoelastic Deformations of Functionally Graded Thick Rectangular Plates , 2002 .

[21]  Wojciech Matusik,et al.  MultiFab , 2015, ACM Trans. Graph..

[22]  E. Pan,et al.  Exact Solution for Functionally Graded Anisotropic Elastic Composite Laminates , 2003 .

[23]  Kostas P. Soldatos,et al.  Complex potential formalisms for bending of inhomogeneous monoclinic plates including transverse shear deformation , 2004 .

[24]  Andrew A. Shapiro,et al.  Development and characterization of Ti-6Al-4V to 304L stainless steel gradient components fabricated with laser deposition additive manufacturing , 2016 .

[25]  Senthil S. Vel,et al.  An exact solution for the steady-state thermoelastic response of functionally graded orthotropic cylindrical shells , 2006 .

[26]  Xing Zhang,et al.  Functionally graded electrospun scaffolds with tunable mechanical properties for vascular tissue regeneration , 2007, Biomedical materials.

[27]  Jami J. Shah,et al.  Parametric and Feature-Based CAD/CAM: Concepts, Techniques, and Applications , 1995 .

[28]  Daniel J. Wigdor,et al.  Foldem: Heterogeneous Object Fabrication via Selective Ablation of Multi-Material Sheets , 2016, CHI.

[29]  Sophie C Cox,et al.  3D printing of porous hydroxyapatite scaffolds intended for use in bone tissue engineering applications. , 2015, Materials science & engineering. C, Materials for biological applications.

[30]  S. Kumar,et al.  Laser assisted rapid manufacturing technique for the manufacturing of functionally graded materials , 2012, 2012 Students Conference on Engineering and Systems.

[31]  B. Paszkiewicz,et al.  Application and modeling of functionally graded materials for optoelectronic devices , 2005, Proceedings of 2005 International Students and Young Scientists Workshop Photonics and Microsystems, 2005..

[32]  M. R. Eslami,et al.  Mechanical and thermal stresses in a functionally graded hollow cylinder due to radially symmetric loads , 2002 .

[33]  Ki-Hoon Shin,et al.  An integrated CAD system for design of heterogeneous objects , 2000 .

[34]  Anil Kumar,et al.  Development and characterization of polymer–ceramic continuous fiber reinforced functionally graded composites for aerospace application , 2013 .

[35]  Pu Huang,et al.  Modeling and Fabrication of Heterogeneous Three-Dimensional Objects Based on Additive Manufacturing , 2013 .

[36]  J. N. Reddy,et al.  Nonlinear transient thermoelastic analysis of functionally graded ceramic-metal plates , 1998 .

[37]  John R. Fessler,et al.  Functional Gradient Metallic Prototypes through Shape Deposition Manufacturing , 1997 .

[38]  Nicholas M. Patrikalakis,et al.  Memory Analysis of Solid Model Representations for Heterogeneous Objects , 2002, J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng..

[39]  Esther T. Akinlabi,et al.  Functionally graded material: an overview , 2012, WCE 2012.

[40]  Ivan Poupyrev,et al.  Printed optics: 3D printing of embedded optical elements for interactive devices , 2012, UIST.

[41]  K. M. Liew,et al.  Thermo-mechanical post-buckling of FGM cylindrical panels with temperature-dependent properties , 2006 .

[42]  Tetsuya Osaka,et al.  Microstructural Study of Electroless-Plated CoNiReP/NiMoP Double-Layered Media for Perpendicular Magnetic Recording , 1990 .

[43]  J. N. Reddy,et al.  A new beam finite element for the analysis of functionally graded materials , 2003 .

[44]  W. S. Sze,et al.  Modeling complex heterogeneous objects with non-manifold heterogeneous cells , 2006, Comput. Aided Des..

[45]  X. Y. Kou,et al.  A hierarchical representation for heterogeneous object modeling , 2005, Comput. Aided Des..

[46]  Xingchen Liu,et al.  Random heterogeneous materials via texture synthesis , 2015 .

[47]  Debasish Dutta,et al.  Constructive Representation of Heterogeneous Objects , 2001, J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng..

[48]  Neil Hopkinson,et al.  The effect of scanning strategy on laser fusion of functionally graded H13/Cu materials , 2006 .

[49]  Vadim Shapiro,et al.  Heterogeneous material modeling with distance fields , 2004, Comput. Aided Geom. Des..

[50]  D. Shepard.  A two-dimensional interpolation function for irregularly-spaced data , 1968, ACM National Conference.

[51]  Prakhar Jaiswal,et al.  Hysteresis in Interoperability: Workflows Involving Multiple Representations of 3D Models , 2016, DAC 2016.

[52]  Wei Chen,et al.  Stochastic microstructure characterization and reconstruction via supervised learning , 2016 .

[53]  Vijay Chandru,et al.  Voxel-based modeling for layered manufacturing , 1995, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[54]  Harwinder Singh,et al.  Development of rapid tooling using fused deposition modeling: a review , 2016 .

[55]  Prakhar Jaiswal,et al.  CREATIVE EXPLORATION OF SCALED PRODUCT FAMILY 3D MODELS USING GESTURE BASED CONCEPTUAL COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (C-CAD) TOOL , 2013 .

[56]  J. Hascoët,et al.  Modeling and control of a direct laser powder deposition process for Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) parts manufacturing , 2013 .

[57]  Neri Oxman,et al.  Voxel-based fabrication through material property mapping: A design method for bitmap printing , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[58]  G. B. Kale,et al.  Interdiffusion studies in titanium–304 stainless steel system , 1998 .

[59]  Vinod Kumar,et al.  An approach to modeling multi-material objects , 1997, SMA '97.

[60]  K. S. Ramesh,et al.  Modelling studies applied to functionally graded materials , 1995 .

[61]  Alexei Sourin,et al.  Function representation in geometric modeling: concepts, implementation and applications , 1995, The Visual Computer.

[62]  W. Yeong,et al.  Engineering functionally graded tissue engineering scaffolds. , 2008, Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials.

[63]  N. Ganesan,et al.  Linear thermoelastic buckling and free vibration behavior of functionally graded truncated conical shells , 2006 .

[64]  Hans-Peter Seidel,et al.  Material memex , 2012, ACM Trans. Graph..

[65]  Denis Cormier,et al.  Potential for Multi-functional Additive Manufacturing Using Pulsed Photonic Sintering , 2015 .

[66]  Ahmed K. Noor,et al.  Structures Technology for Future Aerospace Systems , 1998 .

[67]  Dongsheng Li,et al.  Review of Structure Representation and Reconstruction on Mesoscale and Microscale , 2014 .

[68]  Wojciech Matusik,et al.  OpenFab , 2013, ACM Trans. Graph..

[69]  Paul Witherell,et al.  Identifying uncertainty in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing models. , 2016, Journal of mechanical design.

[70]  Charlie C. L. Wang,et al.  Perceptual models of preference in 3D printing direction , 2015, ACM Trans. Graph..

[71]  Y. Shin,et al.  Microstructure and wear properties of laser-deposited functionally graded Inconel 690 reinforced with TiC , 2012 .

[72]  Rahul Rai,et al.  Human factors study on the usage of BCI headset for 3D CAD modeling , 2014, Comput. Aided Des..

[73]  Mitsuru Kambe,et al.  Intensive energy density thermoelectric energy conversion system by using FGM compliant pads , 2002 .

[74]  S. Milz,et al.  Hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering made by 3D printing , 2005, Journal of materials science. Materials in medicine.

[75]  Debasish Dutta,et al.  A method for the design and fabrication of heterogeneous objects , 2003 .

[76]  Rahul Rai,et al.  Materials Follow Form and Function: Probabilistic Factor Graph Approach for Automatic Material Assignments to 3D Objects , 2014 .

[77]  Yaniv Gelbstein,et al.  Functional Graded Germanium–Lead Chalcogenide‐Based Thermoelectric Module for Renewable Energy Applications , 2015 .

[78]  P. Venini,et al.  Finite elements for functionally graded Reissner–Mindlin plates , 2004 .

[79]  Ohseop Song,et al.  Thin-Walled Beams Made of Functionally Graded Materials and Operating in a High Temperature Environment: Vibration and Stability , 2005 .

[80]  B. Kieback,et al.  Processing techniques for functionally graded materials , 2003 .

[81]  Xiaogang Jin,et al.  Analytical methods for polynomial weighted convolution surfaces with various kernels , 2002, Comput. Graph..

[82]  Wei Sun,et al.  Multi‐nozzle deposition for construction of 3D biopolymer tissue scaffolds , 2005 .

[83]  Markus H. Gross,et al.  Computational design of actuated deformable characters , 2013, ACM Trans. Graph..

[84]  Peter Greil,et al.  Functionally graded materials for biomedical applications , 2003 .

[85]  Charlie C. L. Wang,et al.  The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing in engineering , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[86]  Igor G. Tsukanov,et al.  Transfinite interpolation over implicitly defined sets , 2001, Comput. Aided Geom. Des..

[87]  M. Carter.  Computer graphics: Principles and practice , 1997 .

[88]  Rudolf Hilfer,et al.  Continuum reconstruction of the pore scale microstructure for Fontainebleau sandstone , 2010 .

[89]  S. T. Tan,et al.  Multiple material objects: from CAD representation to data format for rapid prototyping , 2000, Comput. Aided Des..

[90]  Aristides A. G. Requicha,et al.  Representaiton of Rigid Solid Objects , 1980, CAD Advanced Course.

[91]  Jean-Yves Hascoët,et al.  Toolpaths for additive manufacturing of functionally graded materials (FGM) parts , 2014 .

[92]  John N. DuPont,et al.  Fabrication of functionally graded TiC/Ti composites by Laser Engineered Net Shaping , 2003 .

[93]  Somnath Ghosh,et al.  Computational methods for microstructure-property relationships , 2011 .

[94]  Surya R. Kalidindi,et al.  Solid particle erosion resistance of thermally sprayed functionally graded coatings for polymer matrix composites , 2006 .

[95]  A. Kawasaki,et al.  Thermal fracture behavior of metal/ceramic functionally graded materials , 2002 .

[96]  Katsuto Kisara,et al.  Feasibility Study of FGM Technology in Space Solar Power Systems (SSPS) , 2005 .

[97]  C. Gosselin,et al.  Additive Manufacturing and Multi-Objective Optimization of Graded Polystyrene Aggregate Concrete Structures , 2015 .

[98]  A. Kawasaki,et al.  Functionally graded materials : design, processing and applications , 1999 .

[99]  Yoshinari Miyamoto,et al.  Functionally Graded Materials. , 1995 .

[100]  K. F. Leong,et al.  Selective laser sintering of functionally graded tissue scaffolds , 2011 .

[101]  Isaac Elishakoff,et al.  Three-dimensional analysis of an all-round clamped plate made of functionally graded materials , 2005 .

[102]  Neil Hopkinson,et al.  Rapid manufacturing : an industrial revolution for the digital age , 2006 .

[103]  X. Y. Kou,et al.  Robust and efficient algorithms for rapid prototyping of heterogeneous objects , 2009 .

[104]  Xiaojun Wu,et al.  A CAD modeling system for heterogeneous object , 2008, Adv. Eng. Softw..

[105]  M. Leu,et al.  Freeze-form extrusion fabrication of functionally graded materials , 2012 .

[106]  Vadim Shapiro,et al.  Geometric interoperability via queries , 2014, Comput. Aided Des..

[107]  K. Gangadharan,et al.  Functionally Graded Composite Materials: An Overview , 2014 .

[108]  Xiaoyu Tian,et al.  A brief review of dispensing-based rapid prototyping techniques in tissue scaffold fabrication: role of modeling on scaffold properties prediction , 2009, Biofabrication.

[109]  Junji Tani,et al.  Surface Waves in Functionally Gradient Piezoelectric Plates , 1994 .

[110]  Christopher B. Williams,et al.  Fatigue Characterization of 3D Printed Elastomer Material , 2012 .

[111]  Srinivasan Gopalakrishnan,et al.  A spectrally formulated finite element for wave propagation analysis in functionally graded beams , 2003 .

[112]  V. Kumar,et al.  An Approach to Modeling & Representation of Heterogeneous Objects , 1998 .

[113]  Charlie C. L. Wang,et al.  Solid modeling of polyhedral objects by Layered Depth-Normal Images on the GPU , 2010, Comput. Aided Des..

[114]  Motohiro Uo,et al.  Biocompatibility of materials and development to functionally graded implant for bio-medical application , 2004 .

[115]  Hironobu Oonishi,et al.  Effect of hydroxyapatite coating on bone growth into porous titanium alloy implants under loaded conditions , 1994 .

[116]  Chi Zhou,et al.  Digital material fabrication using mask‐image‐projection‐based stereolithography , 2013 .

[117]  Zhuo Chen,et al.  Intuitive 3D Computer-Aided Design (CAD) System With Multimodal Interfaces , 2013 .

[118]  David L. McDowell,et al.  Representation and computational structure-property relations of random media , 2011 .

[119]  Haseung Chung,et al.  Functionally graded Nylon-11/silica nanocomposites produced by selective laser sintering , 2008 .

[120]  N. Ohata,et al.  Fabrication of a functionally graded dental composite resin post and core by laser lithography and finite element analysis of its stress relaxation effect on tooth root. , 2001, Dental materials journal.

[121]  Vadim Shapiro,et al.  Representation and analysis of additively manufactured parts , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[122]  Puneet Tandon,et al.  Heterogeneous object modeling with material convolution surfaces , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[123]  Neri Oxman,et al.  Flow-based fabrication: An integrated computational workflow for design and digital additive manufacturing of multifunctional heterogeneously structured objects , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[124]  Debasish Dutta,et al.  A review of process planning techniques in layered manufacturing , 2000 .

[125]  J. W. Gunnink,et al.  The Reality of Functionally Graded Material Products , 2004 .

[126]  David W. Rosen,et al.  A method for reverse engineering of material microstructure for heterogeneous CAD , 2013, Comput. Aided Des..

[127]  Anping Xu,et al.  Equal distance offset approach to representing and process planning for solid freeform fabrication of functionally graded materials , 2005, Comput. Aided Des..

[128]  X. Y. Kou,et al.  Adaptive meshing for finite element analysis of heterogeneous materials , 2015, Comput. Aided Des..

[129]  Nicholas M. Patrikalakis,et al.  Methods for feature-based design of heterogeneous solids , 2004 .

[130]  Mohammad Talha,et al.  Recent development in modeling and analysis of functionally graded materials and structures , 2015 .

[131]  Xian‐Fang Li,et al.  A unified approach for analyzing static and dynamic behaviors of functionally graded Timoshenko and Euler–Bernoulli beams , 2008 .

[132]  X. Y. Kou,et al.  Microstructural modelling of functionally graded materials using stochastic Voronoi diagram and B-Spline representations , 2012, Int. J. Comput. Integr. Manuf..

[133]  Mica Grujicic,et al.  Bi-objective optimization design of functionally gradient materials , 2002 .

[134]  Liviu Marin,et al.  Numerical solution of the Cauchy problem for steady-state heat transfer in two-dimensional functionally graded materials , 2005 .

[135]  Sisa Pityana,et al.  Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metals , 2011 .

[136]  Daniel Moser,et al.  Multi-layer computational modeling of selective laser sintering processes , 2014 .

[137]  Tosiyasu L. Kunii,et al.  Cellular-functional modeling of heterogeneous objects , 2002, SMA '02.

[138]  Victor Birman,et al.  Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures , 2007 .

[139]  X. Y. Kou,et al.  Heterogeneous object modeling: A review , 2007, Comput. Aided Des..

[140]  Kamran Mumtaz,et al.  High density selective laser melting of Waspaloy , 2008 .

[141]  Vinod Kumar,et al.  A framework for object modeling , 1999, Comput. Aided Des..