When Do Instructional Methods

The results of instructional re­ search offer little comfort to em­ pirically oriented ins t ruct ional psychologists. Reviews of research comparing different instructional methods, educational innovations, or methods of organizing class­ rooms have generally reported few significant differences (Stephens, 1967). This research suffered from numerous problems including the t h o r o u g h n e s s wi th which the learning task was analyzed (Mon­ tague, Ellis, & Wulfeck, 1981), the fidelity with which different treat­ ments were implemented (Cooley, 1978), and the match between the content of instruction and evalua­ tion (Montague, 1980). Neverthe­ less, the findings of no differences between treatments are troubling to both ins t ruct ional designers and researchers. Perhaps in reaction to this state of affairs a number of researchers, including the author, turned their at tention to the interaction be-

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