The International Deep Planet Survey: II. The frequency of directly imaged giant exoplanets with stellar mass

Radial velocity and transit methods are effective for the study of short orbital period exoplanets but they hardly probe objects at large separations for which direct imaging can be used. We carried out the international deep planet survey of 292 young nearby stars to search for giant exoplanets and determine their frequency. We developed a pipeline for a uniform processing of all the data that we have recorded with NIRC2/Keck II, NIRI/Gemini North, NICI/Gemini South, and NACO/VLT for 14 years. The pipeline first applies cosmetic corrections and then reduces the speckle intensity to enhance the contrast in the images. The main result of the international deep planet survey is the discovery of the HR 8799 exoplanets. We also detected 59 visual multiple systems including 16 new binary stars and 2 new triple stellar systems, as well as 2,279 point-like sources. We used Monte Carlo simulations and the Bayesian theorem to determine that 1.05[+2.80-0.70]% of stars harbor at least one giant planet between 0.5 and 14M_J and between 20 and 300 AU. This result is obtained assuming uniform distributions of planet masses and semi-major axes. If we consider power law distributions as measured for close-in planets instead, the derived frequency is 2.30[+5.95-1.55]%, recalling the strong impact of assumptions on Monte Carlo output distributions. We also find no evidence that the derived frequency depends on the mass of the hosting star, whereas it does for close-in planets. The international deep planet survey provides a database of confirmed background sources that may be useful for other exoplanet direct imaging surveys. It also puts new constraints on the number of stars with at least one giant planet reducing by a factor of two the frequencies derived by almost all previous works.

[1]  B. Zuckerman,et al.  NEW MEMBERS OF THE SCORPIUS-CENTAURUS COMPLEX AND AGES OF ITS SUB-REGIONS , 2012, 1204.5715.

[2]  Olivier Guyon,et al.  Direct Imaging Search for Extrasolar Planets in the Pleiades , 2013, 1306.3100.

[3]  F. Allard,et al.  Evolutionary Models for Very Low-Mass Stars and Brown Dwarfs with Dusty Atmospheres , 2000 .

[4]  P. Dubois,et al.  SIMBAD: An Astronomical Database , 1989 .

[5]  K. Stapelfeldt,et al.  A Spitzer Study of Dusty Disks around Nearby, Young Stars , 2005 .

[6]  C. Álvarez,et al.  CCD measurements of visual double stars at Calar Alto , 2000 .

[7]  K. Geissler,et al.  Lucky Imaging survey for southern M dwarf binaries , 2010, 1006.2377.

[8]  M. Janson,et al.  INFRARED NON-DETECTION OF FOMALHAUT b: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PLANET INTERPRETATION , 2012, 1201.4388.

[9]  E. Sion,et al.  THE WHITE DWARFS WITHIN 20 PARSECS OF THE SUN: KINEMATICS AND STATISTICS , 2009, 0910.1288.

[10]  HD 77407 and GJ 577: Two new young stellar binaries - Detected with the Calar Alto Adaptive Optics system ALFA , 2004, astro-ph/0402104.

[11]  R. Schiavon,et al.  Photometric variability of southern T Tauri stars , 1998 .

[12]  Michael S. Bessell,et al.  The β Pictoris Moving Group , 2001 .

[13]  C. Marois,et al.  The Volume-limited A-Star (VAST) survey – I. Companions and the unexpected X-ray detection of B6–A7 stars , 2011, 1103.4363.

[14]  Andrei Tokovinin,et al.  SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY AT SOAR IN 2010 AND 2011: MEASURES, ORBITS, AND RECTILINEAR FITS , 2012 .

[15]  Michael C. Liu,et al.  A STELLAR CENSUS OF THE TUCANA–HOROLOGIUM MOVING GROUP , 2014, 1403.0050.

[16]  M. A. C. Perryman,et al.  The Hipparcos and Tycho catalogues : astrometric and photometric star catalogues derived from the ESA Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission , 1997 .

[17]  David Lafreniere,et al.  HST/NICMOS DETECTION OF HR 8799 b IN 1998 , 2009, 0902.3247.

[18]  G. Schneider,et al.  An Infrared coronagraphic survey for substellar companions , 2005 .

[19]  G. Chauvin,et al.  Search for associations containing young stars (SACY). VI. Is multiplicity universal? Stellar multiplicity in the range 3-1000 au from adaptive-optics observations , 2015, 1505.07837.

[20]  Lynne Hillenbrand,et al.  THE PALOMAR/KECK ADAPTIVE OPTICS SURVEY OF YOUNG SOLAR ANALOGS: EVIDENCE FOR A UNIVERSAL COMPANION MASS FUNCTION , 2008, 0808.2982.

[21]  Laird M. Close,et al.  THE GEMINI NICI PLANET-FINDING CAMPAIGN: DISCOVERY OF A SUBSTELLAR L DWARF COMPANION TO THE NEARBY YOUNG M DWARF CD−35 2722 , 2011, 1101.2893.

[22]  Laird M. Close,et al.  THE GEMINI NICI PLANET-FINDING CAMPAIGN: THE FREQUENCY OF GIANT PLANETS AROUND YOUNG B AND A STARS , 2013, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union.

[23]  C. A. Grady,et al.  A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SEEDS AND OTHER HIGH-CONTRAST EXOPLANET SURVEYS: MASSIVE PLANETS OR LOW-MASS BROWN DWARFS? , 2014, 1404.5335.

[24]  A Search for Faint Companions to Nearby Stars Using the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 , 2000 .

[25]  Inseok Song,et al.  THE TUCANA/HOROLOGIUM, COLUMBA, AB DORADUS, AND ARGUS ASSOCIATIONS: NEW MEMBERS AND DUSTY DEBRIS DISKS , 2011, 1104.0284.

[26]  B. Macintosh,et al.  Angular Differential Imaging: A Powerful High-Contrast Imaging Technique , 2005, astro-ph/0512335.

[27]  Klaus W. Hodapp,et al.  The Gemini Near‐Infrared Imager (NIRI) , 2003 .

[28]  David E. Trilling,et al.  Decay of Planetary Debris Disks , 2005 .

[29]  Evgenya L. Shkolnik,et al.  PLANETS AROUND LOW-MASS STARS (PALMS). IV. THE OUTER ARCHITECTURE OF M DWARF PLANETARY SYSTEMS , 2014, 1411.3722.

[30]  B. Macintosh,et al.  M-BAND IMAGING OF THE HR 8799 PLANETARY SYSTEM USING AN INNOVATIVE LOCI-BASED BACKGROUND SUBTRACTION TECHNIQUE , 2011, 1107.0967.

[31]  Jessica R. Lu,et al.  IMPROVING GALACTIC CENTER ASTROMETRY BY REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF GEOMETRIC DISTORTION , 2010 .

[32]  M. Sterzik,et al.  Search for associations containing young stars (SACY) - V. Is multiplicity universal? Tight multiple systems , 2014, 1406.2323.

[33]  E. Mamajek.  ON THE AGE AND BINARITY OF FOMALHAUT , 2012, 1206.6353.

[34]  Laird M. Close,et al.  An Imaging Survey for Extrasolar Planets around 45 Close, Young Stars with the Simultaneous Differential Imager at the Very Large Telescope and MMT , 2007 .

[35]  J. Szulágyi,et al.  Unveiling new members in five nearby young moving groups , 2013, 1309.1669.

[36]  B. Macintosh,et al.  Direct Imaging of Multiple Planets Orbiting the Star HR 8799 , 2008, Science.

[37]  B. Oppenheimer,et al.  The Gemini Deep Planet Survey , 2007, 0705.4290.

[38]  G. Montagnier,et al.  The VLT/NaCo large program to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs at wide orbits. II. Survey description, results, and performances , 2014, 1405.1560.

[39]  I. Song,et al.  YOUNG STARS NEAR EARTH: THE OCTANS-NEAR ASSOCIATION AND CASTOR MOVING GROUP , 2013, 1309.2318.

[40]  I. Song,et al.  THE AGE OF THE HD 15407 SYSTEM AND THE EPOCH OF FINAL CATASTROPHIC MASS ACCRETION ONTO TERRESTRIAL PLANETS AROUND SUN-LIKE STARS , 2010, 1005.2451.

[41]  A. Vigan,et al.  The VAST Survey - III. The multiplicity of A-type stars within 75 pc , 2013, 1311.7141.

[42]  K. Stapelfeldt,et al.  A DISTANCE-LIMITED IMAGING SURVEY OF SUBSTELLAR COMPANIONS TO SOLAR NEIGHBORHOOD STARS , 2008, 0810.1723.

[43]  Marc J. Kuchner,et al.  THE SPITZER INFRARED SPECTROGRAPH DEBRIS DISK CATALOG. I. CONTINUUM ANALYSIS OF UNRESOLVED TARGETS , 2014 .

[44]  A. Tokovinin,et al.  Accepted..... Received.... , 2022 .

[45]  B. Macintosh,et al.  Images of a fourth planet orbiting HR 8799 , 2010, Nature.

[46]  C. Marois,et al.  Confidence Level and Sensitivity Limits in High-Contrast Imaging , 2007, 0709.3548.

[47]  D. Apai,et al.  Nearby Debris Disk Systems with High Fractional Luminosity Reconsidered , 2006, astro-ph/0603729.

[48]  A. Vigan,et al.  The International Deep Planet Survey - I. The frequency of wide-orbit massive planets around A-stars , 2012, 1206.4048.

[49]  C. Marois,et al.  Efficient Speckle Noise Attenuation in Faint Companion Imaging , 2000 .

[50]  Julien H. Girard,et al.  A survey of young, nearby, and dusty stars conducted to understand the formation of wide-orbit giant planets - VLT/NaCo adaptive optics thermal and angular differential imaging , 2013 .

[51]  J. Caballero.  Reaching the boundary between stellar kinematic groups and very wide binaries - II. α Librae + KU Librae: a common proper motion system in Castor separated by 1.0 pc , 2010, 1001.5432.

[52]  Laird M. Close,et al.  THE GEMINI NICI PLANET-FINDING CAMPAIGN: DISCOVERY OF A MULTIPLE SYSTEM ORBITING THE YOUNG A STAR HD 1160 , 2012, 1202.2854.

[53]  Inseok Song,et al.  A 40 Myr OLD GASEOUS CIRCUMSTELLAR DISK AT 49 CETI: MASSIVE CO-RICH COMET CLOUDS AT YOUNG A-TYPE STARS , 2012, 1207.1747.

[54]  Joel H. Kastner,et al.  THE GALEX NEARBY YOUNG-STAR SURVEY , 2013, 1307.3262.

[55]  D. B. Navascués.  On the age of the TW Hydrae association and 2M1207334-393254 , 2006, astro-ph/0608478.

[56]  D. A. Golimowski,et al.  A Coronagraphic Survey for Companions of Stars within 8 Parsecs , 2001 .

[57]  B. Skiff,et al.  VizieR Online Data Catalog , 2009 .

[58]  F. Bonnarel,et al.  The SIMBAD astronomical database. The CDS reference database for astronomical objects , 2000, astro-ph/0002110.

[59]  T. Nakajima,et al.  POTENTIAL MEMBERS OF STELLAR KINEMATIC GROUPS WITHIN 30 pc OF THE SUN , 2010 .

[60]  Andrew Cumming,et al.  The Keck Planet Search: Detectability and the Minimum Mass and Orbital Period Distribution of Extrasolar Planets , 2008, 0803.3357.

[61]  P. Berlind,et al.  Herbig Ae/Be Stars in nearby OB Associations , 2004, astro-ph/0410494.

[62]  D. Meier,et al.  Gas and Dust Associated with the Strange, Isolated Star BP Piscium , 2008, 0802.0226.

[63]  Andreas Quirrenbach,et al.  Precise Radial Velocities of Giant Stars VII. Occurrence Rate of Giant Extrasolar Planets as a Function of Mass and Metallicity , 2014, 1412.4634.

[64]  Michael S. Bessell,et al.  New Members of the TW Hydrae Association, β Pictoris Moving Group, and Tucana/Horologium Association , 2003 .

[65]  T. Fusco,et al.  Probing long-period companions to planetary hosts : VLT and CFHT near infrared coronographic imaging surveys , 2006, astro-ph/0606166.

[66]  Laird M. Close,et al.  Constraints on Extrasolar Planet Populations from VLT NACO/SDI and MMT SDI and Direct Adaptive Optics Imaging Surveys: Giant Planets are Rare at Large Separations , 2007, 0706.4331.

[67]  Laird M. Close,et al.  THE GEMINI PLANET-FINDING CAMPAIGN: THE FREQUENCY OF GIANT PLANETS AROUND DEBRIS DISK STARS , 2013, 1307.0818.

[68]  L. Hillenbrand,et al.  THE AGES OF EARLY-TYPE STARS: STRÖMGREN PHOTOMETRIC METHODS CALIBRATED, VALIDATED, TESTED, AND APPLIED TO HOSTS AND PROSPECTIVE HOSTS OF DIRECTLY IMAGED EXOPLANETS , 2015, 1501.03154.

[69]  Markus Janson,et al.  A novel L-band imaging search for giant planets in the Tucana and β Pictoris moving groups , 2007, 0706.0095.

[70]  Ben Zuckerman,et al.  Young Stars Near the Sun , 2004 .

[71]  P. H. Hauschildt,et al.  Evolutionary models for cool brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets. The case of HD 209458 , 2003 .

[72]  Etienne Artigau,et al.  A New Algorithm for Point-Spread Function Subtraction in High-Contrast Imaging: A Demonstration with Angular Differential Imaging , 2007, astro-ph/0702697.

[73]  B. Zuckerman,et al.  A low-temperature companion to a white dwarf star , 1988, Nature.

[74]  John C. Wilson,et al.  � 2001. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. SUBSTELLAR COMPANIONS TO MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS: NO BROWN DWARF DESERT AT WIDE SEPARATIONS , 2022 .

[75]  B. Macintosh,et al.  The VAST Survey - II. Orbital motion monitoring of A-type star multiples , 2011, 1112.3666.

[76]  Markus Hartung,et al.  REVEALING COMPANIONS TO NEARBY STARS WITH ASTROMETRIC ACCELERATION , 2012, 1204.4206.

[77]  S. Wolf,et al.  A Herschel resolved far-infrared dust ring around HD 207129 , 2011, 1104.3560.

[78]  Bertrand Mennesson,et al.  FUNDAMENTAL LIMITATIONS OF HIGH CONTRAST IMAGING SET BY SMALL SAMPLE STATISTICS , 2014, 1407.2247.

[79]  E. Horch,et al.  Orbits for five southern visual binaries , 2002 .

[80]  D. Bayliss,et al.  STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION OF DEBRIS DISKS AROUND F-TYPE STARS. I. OBSERVATIONS, DATABASE, AND BASIC EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS , 2010, 1012.3631.

[81]  R. Jayawardhana,et al.  Deficit of Wide Binaries in the η Chamaeleontis Young Cluster , 2006, astro-ph/0608352.

[82]  Z. Cvetkovic,et al.  CCD MEASUREMENTS OF DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE STARS AT NAO ROZHEN: ORBITS AND LINEAR FITS OF FIVE PAIRS , 2011 .

[83]  M. McElwain,et al.  Characterization of Dusty Debris Disks: The IRAS and Hipparcos Catalogs , 2006, astro-ph/0609555.

[84]  Laird M. Close,et al.  THE GEMINI/NICI PLANET-FINDING CAMPAIGN: THE FREQUENCY OF PLANETS AROUND YOUNG MOVING GROUP STARS , 2013, 1309.1462.

[85]  R. Neuhauser,et al.  A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos stars within 3 kpc from the Sun , 2010, 1007.4883.

[86]  B. Zuckerman,et al.  BINARIES AMONG DEBRIS DISK STARS , 2011, 1111.5618.

[87]  M. Meyer,et al.  CONSTRAINTS ON LONG-PERIOD PLANETS FROM AN L′- AND M-BAND SURVEY OF NEARBY SUN-LIKE STARS: OBSERVATIONS , 2010, 1003.5340.

[88]  David Lafreniere,et al.  BAYESIAN ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY NEW STAR CANDIDATES IN NEARBY YOUNG STELLAR KINEMATIC GROUPS , 2012, 1209.2077.

[89]  Ages of A-Type Vega-like Stars from uvbyβ Photometry , 2000, astro-ph/0010102.

[90]  David M. Kipping,et al.  Parametrizing the exoplanet eccentricity distribution with the beta distribution. , 2013, 1306.4982.

[91]  K. Stapelfeldt,et al.  COMMON WARM DUST TEMPERATURES AROUND MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS , 2011 .

[92]  Alycia J. Weinberger,et al.  IDENTIFYING THE YOUNG LOW-MASS STARS WITHIN 25 pc. II. DISTANCES, KINEMATICS, AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP , 2012, 1207.5074.

[93]  Markus Janson,et al.  Integral field spectroscopy of L 449-1 -- A test case for spectral differential imaging with SINFONI , 2008 .

[94]  C. M. Zaidi,et al.  The VLT/NaCo large program to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs in wide orbits - I. Sample definition and characterization , 2014, 1405.1559.

[95]  Laird M. Close,et al.  A UNIFORM ANALYSIS OF 118 STARS WITH HIGH-CONTRAST IMAGING: LONG-PERIOD EXTRASOLAR GIANT PLANETS ARE RARE AROUND SUN-LIKE STARS , 2009, 0909.4531.

[96]  A. Boccaletti,et al.  Search for cool giant exoplanets around young and nearby stars - VLT/NaCo near-infrared phase-coronagraphic and differential imaging , 2014, 1404.3502.