From beat to BCI: A musical paradigm for, and the ethical aspects of Brain-Computer Interfacing

An auditory rhythm can be perceived as a sequence of accented (loud) and non-accented (soft) beats or it can be imagined. Subjective rhythmization refers to the induction of accenting patterns during the presentation of identical auditory pulses at an isochronous rate. It can be an automatic process, but it can also be voluntarily controlled. We investigated whether imagined accents can be decoded from brain signals on a single-trial basis, and if there is information shared between perception and imagery in the contrast of accents and non-accents. Ten subjects perceived and imagined three different metric patterns (2-, 3-, and 4-beat) superimposed on a steady metronome while electroencephalography (EEG) measurements were made. Shared information between perception and imagery EEG is investigated by means of principal component analysis and by means of single-trial classification. Classification of accented from non-accented beats was possible with an average accuracy of 70% for perception and 61% for imagery data. Cross-condition classification yielded significant performance above chance level for a classifier trained on perception and tested on imagery data (up to 66%), and vice-versa (up to 60%). Results show that detection of imagined accents is possible and reveal similarity in brain signatures relevant to distinction of accents from non-accents in perception and imagery. Our results support the idea of shared mechanisms in perception and imagery for auditory processing. This is relevant for a number of clinical settings, most notably by elucidating the basic mechanisms of rhythmic auditory cuing paradigms, e.g. as used in motor rehabilitation or therapy for Parkinson’s disease. As a novel Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) paradigm, our results imply a reduction of the necessary BCI training in healthy subjects and in patients. 1Chapters 2 and 3 make use of a single EEG dataset, analysed from different angles and answering a different set of questions

[1]  Eduardo Miranda,et al.  Brain-Computer Music Interfacing (BCMI): From Basic Research to the Real World of Special Needs , 2011 .

[2]  Aniruddh D. Patel.  Music, Language, and the Brain , 2007 .

[3]  S. M. Beurze.  Cortical mechanisms for reach planning , 2004 .

[4]  R. Zatorre,et al.  Behavioral and neural correlates of perceived and imagined musical timbre , 2004, Neuropsychologia.

[5]  Y. Schoon.  From a gait and falls clinic visit towards self-management of falls in frail elderly , 2013 .

[6]  C. Haaxma,et al.  New perspectives on preclinical and early stage Parkinson's disease , 2011 .

[7]  J. Duijnhouwer.  Studies on the rotation problem in self-motion perception , 2013 .

[8]  EEG signatures of auditory activity correlate with simultaneously recorded fMRI responses in humans , 2010, NeuroImage.

[9]  Joep Lagro,et al.  Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular physiological measurements in clinical practice and prognostics in geriatric patients , 2013 .

[10]  R. J. van Lier,et al.  Shaping Object Boundaries: Contextual effects in infants and adults , 2006 .

[11]  Willem F. G. Haselager,et al.  BCI and a User’s Judgment of Agency , 2014 .

[12]  S. Kosslyn,et al.  Topographical representations of mental images in primary visual cortex , 1995, Nature.

[13]  P. Spies.  The reflection of Alzheimer disease in CSF. , 2012 .

[14]  M. Helle,et al.  Artery-specific perfusion measurements in the cerebral vasculature by magnetic resonance imaging , 2012 .

[15]  P. Eling.  Imaging the effects of ADHD risk genes. , 2013 .

[16]  M. V. Gerven,et al.  Attention modulations of posterior alpha as a control signal for two-dimensional brain–computer interfaces , 2009, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[17]  H. J. Schriefers,et al.  Word order and verb inflection in agrammatic sentence production , 2001 .

[18]  J. Sloboda,et al.  Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications , 2011 .

[19]  A. L. Arenas,et al.  Adapting brain-computer interfaces for non-stationary changes , 2014 .

[20]  D. Levitin.  This Is Your Brain on Music , 2006 .

[22]  J.A.A.M. Overvelde,et al.  Which practice makes perfect? : experimental studies on the acquisition of movement sequences to identify the best learning condition in good and poor writers , 2013 .

[23]  S. Whitmarsh.  Nonreactivity and metacognition in mindfulness , 2013 .

[24]  Kae Nakamura,et al.  Dopaminergic modulation of reward and punishment learning , 2014 .

[25]  C. Delnooz.  Unravelling primary focal dystonia. A treatment update and new pathophysiological insights , 2014 .

[26]  Pascal Brenders,et al.  Cross-language interactions in beginning second language learners , 2004 .

[27]  Elizabeth Leonard.  Right to Experimental Treatment: FDA New Drug Approval, Constitutional Rights, and the Public's Health , 2009, The Journal of law, medicine & ethics : a journal of the American Society of Law, Medicine & Ethics.

[28]  G. Pfurtscheller,et al.  EEG-based discrimination between imagination of right and left hand movement. , 1997, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[29]  Lutz Jäncke,et al.  Electrical brain imaging reveals spatio-temporal dynamics of timbre perception in humans , 2006, NeuroImage.

[30]  V. Buchholz.  Oscillatory activity in tactile remapping , 2013 .

[31]  Martha J Farah,et al.  Social, Legal, and Ethical Implications of Cognitive Neuroscience: Neuroethics for Short , 2007, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[32]  Dharmesh Patel.  Rhythm , 1919, The Craft of Poetry.

[33]  I. Simanova.  In search of conceptual representations in the brain: Towards mind-reading , 2014 .

[34]  C. Tesink.  Neurobiological insights into language comprehension in autism: Context matters , 2013 .

[35]  V. Zerbi.  Impact of nutrition on brain structure and function : a magnetic resonance imaging approach in Alzheimer mouse models , 2013 .

[36]  M.L.T. Vergeer.  Visibility and appearance in perceptual phenomena: Effects of color and form , 2004 .

[37]  Gerwin Schalk,et al.  A brain–computer interface using electrocorticographic signals in humans , 2004, Journal of neural engineering.

[38]  Jonathan Levy,et al.  In cerebro unveiling unconscious mechanisms during reading , 2010 .

[39]  M. Braakman.  Posttraumatic stress disorder with secondary psychotic features. A diagnostic validity study among refugees in the Netherlands , 2013 .

[40]  N. Birbaumer,et al.  Brain–computer interfaces and communication in paralysis: Extinction of goal directed thinking in completely paralysed patients? , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[41]  Aniruddh D. Patel,et al.  Top‐Down Control of Rhythm Perception Modulates Early Auditory Responses , 2009, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[42]  S. Ondobaka.  On the conceptual and perceptual processing of own and others' behavior , 2013 .

[43]  M. V. D. Linden.  Experience-based cortical plasticity in object category representation , 2011 .

[44]  Nicholas G. Hatsopoulos,et al.  Brain-machine interface: Instant neural control of a movement signal , 2002, Nature.

[45]  M. Herbert.  Facing uncertain diagnosis: the use of CSF biomarkers for the differential diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases. , 2014 .

[46]  Jon A. Mukand,et al.  Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia , 2006, Nature.

[47]  Emil H. J. Nijhuis,et al.  Macroscopic networks in the human brain: mapping connectivity in healthy and damaged brains , 2013 .

[48]  M. V. Kesteren.  Schemas in the brain: Influences of prior knowledge on learning, memory, and education , 2013 .

[49]  A. Mädebach,et al.  Lexical access in speaking: Studies on lexical selection and cascading activation , 2011 .

[50]  Girijesh Prasad,et al.  Using motor imagery based brain-computer interface for post-stroke rehabilitation , 2009, 2009 4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering.

[51]  B. Gaszner,et al.  Plastic responses to stress by the rodent urocortinergic Edinger-Westphal nucleus , 2008 .

[52]  F. L. D. Silva,et al.  Event-related EEG/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: basic principles , 1999, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[53]  K. Mauritz,et al.  Musical motor feedback (MMF) in walking hemiparetic stroke patients: randomized trials of gait improvement , 2003, Clinical rehabilitation.

[54]  Niels Birbaumer,et al.  Brain–computer-interface research: Coming of age , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[55]  S. Coyle,et al.  Brain–computer interfaces: a review , 2003 .

[56]  Klas Ihme,et al.  A Dry EEG-System for Scientific Research and Brain–Computer Interfaces , 2010, Front. Neurosci..

[57]  Olga Meulenbroek,et al.  Neural correlates of episodic memory in healthy aging and Alzheimer's disease. , 2010 .

[58]  C. Neuper,et al.  Toward a high-throughput auditory P300-based brain–computer interface , 2009, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[59]  Desynchronization in the right auditory cortex during musical hallucinations: A MEG study , 2003 .

[60]  J. Arnold.  When mood meets memory : neural and behavioural perspectives on emotional memory in health and depression , 2013 .

[61]  F. Gerstenbrand,et al.  Varieties of the locked-in syndrome , 1979, Journal of Neurology.

[62]  D. Richman.  Public access to experimental drug therapy: AIDS raises yet another conflict between freedom of the individual and welfare of the individual and public. , 1989, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[63]  G. Dumont.  Cognitive and physiological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or 'ecstasy') in combination with alcohol or cannabis in humans , 2009 .

[64]  N. Birbaumer,et al.  The Influence of Psychological State and Motivation on Brain–Computer Interface Performance in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis – a Longitudinal Study , 2010, Front. Neuropharma..

[65]  V. Piai.  Choosing our words: Lexical competition and the involvement of attention in spoken word production , 2014 .

[66]  J. Wolpaw,et al.  Towards an independent brain–computer interface using steady state visual evoked potentials , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[67]  D. Slats,et al.  CSF biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease. Serial sampling analysis and the study of circadian rhythmicity , 2012 .

[68]  Jens Clausen,et al.  Man, machine and in between , 2009, Nature.

[69]  E. Visser.  Leaves and forests. Low level sound processing and methods for the large-scale analysis of white matter structure in autism , 2013 .

[70]  Hideaki Koizumi,et al.  Ethical considerations of neuroscience research: The perspectives on neuroethics in Japan , 2007, Neuroscience Research.

[71]  N. V. D. Meerendonk,et al.  States of indecision in the brain : Electrophysiological and hemodynamic reflections of monitoring in visual language perception , 2012 .

[72]  K. Kasai,et al.  Evidence for functional abnormality in the right auditory cortex during musical hallucinations , 1999, The Lancet.

[73]  S. Alpert,et al.  Extending Our View on Using BCIs for Locked-in Syndrome , 2008 .

[74]  P. Beek,et al.  Gait Coordination After Stroke: Benefits of Acoustically Paced Treadmill Walking , 2007, Physical Therapy.

[75]  T. Eskenazi.  You, Us & Them: From motor simulation to ascribed shared intentionality in social perception , 2013 .

[76]  K. Roelofs,et al.  The neural and endocrine regulation of emotional actions , 2008 .

[77]  Ricardo Blaug,et al.  6. The Federalist Papers , 2016 .

[78]  J. Tramper.  Feedforward and feedback mechanisms in sensory motor control , 2013 .

[79]  R. Gons.  Vascular risk factors in cerebral small vessel disease. A diffusion tensor imaging study , 2012 .

[80]  K. Koenraadt.  Shedding light on cortical control of movement , 2014 .

[81]  R. Schaefer,et al.  Music perception and imagery in EEG: alpha band effects of task and stimulus. , 2011, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[82]  D. V. Barneveld.  Integration of exteroceptive and interoceptive cues in spatial localization , 2012 .

[83]  Jason Farquhar,et al.  A multi-signature brain–computer interface: use of transient and steady-state responses , 2013, Journal of neural engineering.

[84]  W. Walentowska.  Facing emotional faces. The nature of automaticity of facial emotion processing studied with ERPs , 2012 .

[85]  B. V. Geldorp.  The long and the short of memory. Neuropsychological studies on the interaction of working memory and long-term memory formation , 2014 .

[86]  Mohammad Gheshlaghi Azar,et al.  On the theory of reinforcement learning : methods, convergence analysis and sample complexity , 2012 .

[87]  D. Regan.  Steady-state evoked potentials. , 1977, Journal of the Optical Society of America.

[88]  Y. Samson,et al.  Recovery from nonfluent aphasia after melodic intonation therapy , 1996, Neurology.

[89]  Giosuè Baggio,et al.  Semantics and the electrophysiology of meaning: Tense, aspect, event structure , 2004 .

[90]  John A. Michon,et al.  Time, Mind, and Behavior , 1985, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

[91]  S. Walter.  Locked-in Syndrome, BCI, and a Confusion about Embodied, Embedded, Extended, and Enacted Cognition , 2010 .

[92]  L. Ossewaarde,et al.  The mood cycle: hormonal influences on the female brain. , 2011 .

[93]  D.J. McFarland,et al.  The wadsworth BCI research and development program: at home with BCI , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[94]  M. J. Grol.  Parieto-frontal circuitry in visuomotor control , 2008 .

[95]  Tessa M. van Leeuwen,et al.  How one can see what is not there: Neural mechanisms of grapheme-colour synasthesia , 2011 .

[96]  S. Pinker.  How the Mind Works , 1999, Philosophy after Darwin.

[97]  G. R. Muller,et al.  Clinical application of an EEG-based brain–computer interface: a case study in a patient with severe motor impairment , 2003, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[98]  W. A. Sarnacki,et al.  Electroencephalographic (EEG) control of three-dimensional movement , 2010, Journal of neural engineering.

[99]  Edward W. Large,et al.  Tracking simple and complex sequences , 2002, Psychological research.

[100]  Christoph Mulert,et al.  Sound level dependence of the primary auditory cortex: Simultaneous measurement with 61-channel EEG and fMRI , 2005, NeuroImage.

[101]  E. Wronka.  Searching for the biological basis of human mental abilitites. The relationship between attention and intelligence studied with P3 , 2013 .

[102]  R. Helmich.  Cerebral reorganization in Parkinson's disease. , 2011 .

[103]  Anton Nijholt,et al.  Turning Shortcomings into Challenges: Brain-Computer Interfaces for Games , 2009, INTETAIN.

[104]  K. Zentgraf,et al.  Cognitive motor processes: The role of motor imagery in the study of motor representations , 2009, Brain Research Reviews.

[105]  M. Farah,et al.  Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[106]  Thierry Pun,et al.  Information theoretic bit-rate optimization for average trial protocol Brain-Computer Interfaces , 2003 .

[107]  A. H. Snijders.  Tackling freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease , 2012 .

[108]  J. Knippenberg,et al.  The N150 of the Auditory Evoked Potential from the rat amygdala: In search for its functional significance , 2009 .

[109]  Ali Bahramisharif,et al.  Brain-computer interfacing using modulations of alpha activity induced by covert shifts of attention , 2011, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation.

[110]  M. Aerts.  Improving diagnostic accuracy in parkinsonism. , 2014 .

[111]  K. F. Laat,et al.  Motor performance in individuals with cerebral small vessel disease: an MRI study , 2011 .

[112]  Jeroen Geuze,et al.  Brain Computer Interfaces for Communication. Moving beyond the visual speller , 2014 .

[113]  J. van der Werf,et al.  Cortical oscillatory activity in human visuomotor integration , 2011 .

[114]  Jason Farquhar,et al.  Detection of event-related desynchronization during attempted and imagined movements in tetraplegics for brain switch control , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[115]  E. V. Dongen,et al.  Sleeping to Remember. On the neural and behavioral mechanisms of sleep-dependent memory consolidation , 2013 .

[116]  Niels Birbaumer,et al.  Severity of Depressive Symptoms and Quality of Life in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis , 2005, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[117]  D. Boelen,et al.  Order out of chaos? Assessment and treatment of executive disorders in brain-injured patients , 2002 .

[118]  M. Bakker,et al.  Supraspinal control of walking : lessons from motor imagery , 2001 .

[119]  G. Pfurtscheller,et al.  A fully automated correction method of EOG artifacts in EEG recordings , 2007, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[120]  M. R. Schouwenburg,et al.  Fronto-striatal mechanisms of attentional control , 2012 .

[121]  P. Hagoort,et al.  Cortical oscillatory activity during memory formation , 2008 .

[122]  A. Mazaheri.  The influence of ongoing oscillatory brain activity on evoked responses and behaviour , 2004 .

[123]  Michael J. Black,et al.  Neural control of computer cursor velocity by decoding motor cortical spiking activity in humans with tetraplegia , 2008, Journal of neural engineering.

[124]  D. Mattia,et al.  Disorders of consciousness and communication. Ethical motivations and communication-enabling attributes of consciousness. , 2011, Functional Neurology.

[125]  F. Ede.  Preparing for perception: On the attentional modulation, perceptual relevance and physiology of oscillatory neural activity , 2014 .

[126]  Timothy L Hubbard,et al.  Auditory imagery: empirical findings. , 2010, Psychological bulletin.

[127]  G. Tamburrini.  Brain to Computer Communication: Ethical Perspectives on Interaction Models , 2009 .

[128]  H. Slyter,et al.  Ethical challenges in stroke research. , 1998, Stroke.

[129]  J. Kelso.  Human Motor Behavior: An Introduction , 1982 .

[130]  B. Lapatki,et al.  The facial musculature. Characterisation at a motor unit level. , 2010 .

[131]  Michael H. Thaut,et al.  Neurologic Music Therapy in Cognitive Rehabilitation , 2010 .

[132]  S. Gielen,et al.  The brain–computer interface cycle , 2009, Journal of neural engineering.

[133]  K.-R. Muller,et al.  Improving speed and accuracy of brain-computer interfaces using readiness potential features , 2004, The 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[134]  L. Snaphaan,et al.  Epidemiology of Post-Stroke behavioural Consequences. , 2010 .

[135]  S. Prinz,et al.  Waterbath stunning of chickens: Effects of electrical parameters on the electroencephalogram and physical reflexes of broilers , 2009 .

[136]  D. Jansen.  The role of nutrition in Alzheimer’s disease : a study in transgenic mouse models for Alzheimer’s disease and vascular disorders , 2013 .

[137]  William J. Frey,et al.  Ethics of Team Work , 2007 .

[138]  C. Crajé,et al.  A)typical motor planning and motor imagery , 2006 .

[139]  G. Rozelle,et al.  Neurotherapy for stroke rehabilitation: A single case study , 1995, Biofeedback and self-regulation.

[140]  Alex Brandmeyer.  Auditory perceptual learning via decoded EEG neurofeedback: A novel paradigm , 2014 .

[141]  Alan C. Evans,et al.  Hearing in the Mind's Ear: A PET Investigation of Musical Imagery and Perception , 1996, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[142]  P. Wingbermühle.  Cognition and emotion in adults with Noonan syndrome. A neuropsychological perspective , 2013 .

[143]  R. Schaefer,et al.  Decomposing rhythm processing: electroencephalography of perceived and self-imposed rhythmic patterns , 2010, Psychological research.

[144]  John D E Gabrieli,et al.  Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[145]  E. Donchin,et al.  Talking off the top of your head: toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain potentials. , 1988, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[146]  R. Schaefer.  Measuring the mind’s ear: EEG of music imagery , 2011 .

[147]  José del R. Millán,et al.  Context-Based Filtering for Assisted Brain-Actuated Wheelchair Driving , 2007, Comput. Intell. Neurosci..

[148]  Linsey Roijendijk,et al.  Variability and Nonstationarity in Brain Computer Interfaces , 2009 .

[149]  I. Nieuwenhuis,et al.  Memory consolidation. A process of integration converging evidence from MEG, fMRI and behavior. , 2010 .

[150]  R. Quian Quiroga,et al.  Expectancy effects on omission evoked potentials in musicians and non-musicians. , 2005, Psychophysiology.

[151]  I. Brazil.  Change doesn't come easy: Dynamics of adaptive behavior in psychopathy , 2010 .

[152]  T. Heskes,et al.  Covert attention allows for continuous control of brain–computer interfaces , 2010, The European journal of neuroscience.

[153]  J. Curtis,et al.  Meeting physicians' responsibilities in providing end-of-life care. , 2008, Chest.

[154]  T. N. Lal,et al.  Classifying EEG and ECoG signals without subject training for fast BCI implementation: comparison of nonparalyzed and completely paralyzed subjects , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[155]  Martijn J. M. Lamers,et al.  Levels of selective attention in action planning , 2004 .

[156]  G Calhoun,et al.  Brain-computer interfaces based on the steady-state visual-evoked response. , 2000, IEEE transactions on rehabilitation engineering : a publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[157]  Jeremy Hill,et al.  A note on ethical aspects of BCI , 2009, Neural Networks.

[158]  L. Rutten-Jacobs.  Long-term prognosis after stroke in young adults. , 2014 .

[159]  E. Hildt.  Brain-Computer Interaction and Medical Access to the Brain: Individual, Social and Ethical Implications , 2011 .

[160]  C. C. A. M. Gielen,et al.  Shared mechanisms in perception and imagery of auditory accents , 2011, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[161]  B. Allison,et al.  The Asilomar Survey: Stakeholders’ Opinions on Ethical Issues Related to Brain-Computer Interfacing , 2011, Neuroethics.

[162]  Peter Desain,et al.  Introducing the tactile speller: an ERP-based brain–computer interface for communication , 2012, Journal of neural engineering.

[163]  D. McFarland,et al.  An auditory brain–computer interface (BCI) , 2008, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[164]  M. Henckens.  Imaging the stressed brain. Elucidating the time - and region - specific effects of stress hormones on brain function: a translational approach , 2008 .

[165]  M. Meyer,et al.  The developing brain in action - Individual and joint action processing , 2014 .

[166]  S. Rose,et al.  How to (or not to) communicate science. , 2003, Biochemical Society transactions.

[167]  S. Vermeer,et al.  Clinical and genetic characterisation of autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxias. , 2012 .

[168]  J. Snyder,et al.  Gamma-band activity reflects the metric structure of rhythmic tone sequences. , 2005, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[169]  P. Buur.  Imaging in motion : applications of multi-echo FMRI , 2011 .

[170]  Judy Illes,et al.  International perspectives on engaging the public in neuroethics , 2005, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[171]  L. Hale,et al.  The impact of bilateral therapy on upper limb function after chronic stroke: a systematic review , 2010, Disability and rehabilitation.

[172]  T. Rouwette,et al.  Neuropathic pain and the brain. Differential involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor and urocortin 1 in acute and chronic pain processing , 2012 .

[173]  Peter Desain,et al.  Dense codes at high speeds: varying stimulus properties to improve visual speller performance , 2012, Journal of neural engineering.

[174]  S. van Pelt,et al.  Dynamic neural representations of human visuomotor space , 2003 .

[175]  J. Pijnacker,et al.  Defeasible inference in autism: a behavioral and electrophysiological approach , 2010 .

[176]  Saskia Haegens,et al.  On the functional role of oscillatory neuronal activity in the somatosensory system , 2011 .

[177]  S. Bögels,et al.  The role of prosody in language comprehension: when prosodic breaks and pitch accents come into play , 2011 .

[178]  Harold Bekkering,et al.  Dynamics of cognitive control in task switching: looking beyond the switch cost , 2001 .

[179]  Tineke M. Snijders,et al.  More than words: neural and genetic dynamics of syntactic unification , 2004 .

[180]  G. Pfurtscheller,et al.  EEG-based communication: presence of an error potential , 2000, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[181]  J. M. Schoffelen,et al.  Neuronal communication through coherence in the human motor system , 2007 .

[182]  C. Hooijmans,et al.  Impact of nutritional lipids and vascular factors in Alzheimer's Disease - a study of transgenic Alzheimer mice - , 2008 .

[183]  A. Halpern,et al.  Cerebral Substrates of Musical Imagery , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[184]  Lennart Verhagen,et al.  How to grasp a ripe tomato , 2012 .

[185]  N. Todd.  A Model of Expressive Timing in Tonal Music , 1985 .

[186]  T. Beauchamp,et al.  Principles of biomedical ethics , 1991 .

[187]  E. Racine,et al.  Autonomy and Coercion in Academic “Cognitive Enhancement” Using Methylphenidate: Perspectives of Key Stakeholders , 2009 .

[188]  R. Oostenveld,et al.  Nonparametric statistical testing of EEG- and MEG-data , 2007, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[189]  Matthias S. Treder,et al.  Symmetry in (inter)action , 2005 .

[190]  L. Menenti,et al.  The right language : differential hemispheric contributions to language production and comprehension in context , 2010 .

[191]  H. Bekkering,et al.  Development of action perception: Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying children’s processing of other’s actions , 2009 .

[192]  J. Wolpaw,et al.  Patients with ALS can use sensorimotor rhythms to operate a brain-computer interface , 2005, Neurology.

[193]  Mark E. Dohring,et al.  Feasibility of a New Application of Noninvasive Brain Computer Interface (BCI): A Case Study of Training for Recovery of Volitional Motor Control After Stroke , 2009, Journal of neurologic physical therapy : JNPT.

[194]  René Scheeringa,et al.  On the relation between oscillatory EEG activity and the BOLD signal , 2011 .

[195]  J. Monahan,et al.  Perceived coercion at hospital admission and adherence to mental health treatment after discharge. , 2003, Psychiatric services.

[196]  Elisabeth Hildt,et al.  Electrodes in the brain: Some anthropological and ethical aspects of deep brain stimulation , 2006 .

[197]  Eric Maris,et al.  Randomization tests for ERP topographies and whole spatiotemporal data matrices. , 2004, Psychophysiology.

[198]  I.A.D.A. van Tilborg.  Procedural learning in cognitively impaired patients and its application in clinical practice , 2011 .

[199]  P Desain,et al.  Sequenced subjective accents for brain–computer interfaces , 2011, Journal of neural engineering.

[200]  Pim Haselager,et al.  Did My Brain Implant Make Me Do It? Questions Raised by DBS Regarding Psychological Continuity, Responsibility for Action and Mental Competence , 2010, Neuroethics.

[201]  B. Kleine,et al.  Motor unit discharges, physiological and diagnostic studies in ALS. , 2011 .

[202]  David J. M. Kraemer,et al.  Musical imagery: Sound of silence activates auditory cortex , 2005, Nature.

[203]  P. Kok.  On the role of expectation in visual perception: A top-down view of early visual cortex , 2015 .

[204]  Peter Desain,et al.  A (De)Composable Theory of Rhythm Perception , 1992 .

[205]  Kirsten Weber,et al.  The language learning brain: Evidence from second language learning and bilingual studies of syntactic processing , 2012 .

[206]  N. Timmer,et al.  The interaction of heparan sulfate proteoglycans with the amyloid β protein. , 2011 .

[207]  J. Wolpaw,et al.  A P300-based brain–computer interface for people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[208]  F. Perrin,et al.  Spherical splines for scalp potential and current density mapping. , 1989, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[209]  N. Voermans,et al.  Neuromuscular features of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and Marfan syndrome, expanding the phenotype of inherited connective tissue disorders and investigating the role of the extracellular matrix in muscle , 2011 .

[210]  J. Egetemeir,et al.  Neural correlates of real-life joint action , 2012 .

[211]  Zachary E. Shapiro,et al.  Neuroimaging and neuroethics: clinical and policy considerations , 2007, Current opinion in neurology.

[212]  Hans-Jochen Heinze,et al.  Shared networks for auditory and motor processing in professional pianists: Evidence from fMRI conjunction , 2006, NeuroImage.

[213]  N. Derks,et al.  The role of the non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus in sex-dependent stress adaptation in rodents , 2010 .

[214]  Ethan R. Buch,et al.  Think to Move: a Neuromagnetic Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) System for Chronic Stroke , 2008, Stroke.

[215]  Terrence J. Sejnowski,et al.  Toward Brain-Computer Interfacing (Neural Information Processing) , 2007 .

[216]  Rajesh P. N. Rao,et al.  Towards adaptive classification for BCI , 2006, Journal of neural engineering.

[217]  Klaus-Robert Müller,et al.  Towards Zero Training for Brain-Computer Interfacing , 2008, PloS one.

[218]  W. V. Dam,et al.  On the specificity and flexibility of embodied lexical-semantic representations , 2012 .

[219]  TOBI Tools for Brain-computer Interaction , 2010 .

[220]  Marijn C. W. Kroes,et al.  Altering memories for emotional experiences , 2013 .

[221]  M. Kuribara,et al.  Environment –induces activation and growth of pituitary melanotrope cells of Xenopus laevis , 2011 .

[222]  Justin London,et al.  Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter , 2004 .

[223]  J. Schoffelen,et al.  Neuronal communication in the synchronized brain: Investigating the functional role of visually induced gamma-band activity: Lessons from MEG , 2002 .

[224]  J. P. Kalisvaart.  Visual ambiguity in perception and action , 2013 .

[225]  Shaozheng Qin,et al.  Adaptive memory. Imaging medial temporal and prefrontal memory systems , 2010 .

[226]  J. Wolpaw,et al.  Mu and Beta Rhythm Topographies During Motor Imagery and Actual Movements , 2004, Brain Topography.

[227]  Stephanie J. Bird,et al.  Ethical Issues in Communicating Science , 2000, Sci. Eng. Ethics.

[228]  Jason Farquhar,et al.  Shared processing of perception and imagery of music in decomposed EEG , 2013, NeuroImage.

[229]  A. G. Norden,et al.  Cognitive function in elderly individuals with cerebral small vessel disease : an MRI study , 2011 .

[230]  A. Zedlitz.  Brittle Brain Power. Post-stroke fatigue, explorations into assessment and treatment , 2013 .

[231]  Thomas J Liesegang.  The meaning and need for informed consent in research. , 2007, Indian journal of ophthalmology.

[232]  A. Böckler.  Looking at the World Together: How Others' Attentional Relations to Jointly Attended Scenes Shape Cognitive Processing , 2013 .

[233]  Wolfgang Klimesch,et al.  Instrumental conditioning of human sensorimotor rhythm (12-15 Hz) and its impact on sleep as well as declarative learning. , 2008, Sleep.

[234]  B. Scholkopf,et al.  Attention modulation of auditory event-related potentials in a brain-computer interface , 2004, IEEE International Workshop on Biomedical Circuits and Systems, 2004..

[235]  H. V. Marle,et al.  The amygdala on alert : a neuroimaging investigation into amygdala function during acute stress and its aftermath , 2011 .

[236]  M. D. Vrijer.  Multisensory integration in spatial orientation , 2006 .

[237]  H. Bekkering,et al.  Modulating motor imagery : Contextual, spatial & kinaesthetic influences , 2013 .

[238]  Judy Illes,et al.  Empirical neuroethics , 2007, EMBO reports.

[239]  A. Kübler,et al.  Training locked-in patients: a challenge for the use of brain-computer interfaces , 2003, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[240]  B. Nuenen,et al.  Cerebral reorganization in premotor parkinsonism , 2012 .

[241]  S. Bultena.  Bilingual processing of cognates and language switches in sentence context , 2009 .

[242]  A. Sterrenburg,et al.  The stress response of forebrain and midbrain regions : neuropeptides, sex-specificity and epigenetics , 2009 .

[243]  E. Jansen,et al.  New insights into V-ATPase functioning: the role of its accessory subunit Ac45 and a novel brain-specific Ac45 paralog , 2011 .

[244]  A. Wester.  Assessment of everyday memory in patients with alcohol-related cognitive disorders using the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test , 2014 .

[245]  Alice J. O'Toole,et al.  Theoretical, Statistical, and Practical Perspectives on Pattern-based Classification Approaches to the Analysis of Functional Neuroimaging Data , 2007, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[246]  Peter Desain,et al.  Re-phrase: chat-by-click: a fundamental new mode of human communication over the internet , 2008, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[247]  Miriam F. Reelick.  One step a time. Disentangling the complexity of preventing falls in frail older persons , 2011 .

[248]  C. Horlings,et al.  A weak balance; Balance and falls in patients with neuromuscular disorders. , 2010 .

[249]  J. Wolpaw,et al.  Brain–computer interfaces in neurological rehabilitation , 2008, The Lancet Neurology.

[250]  T. Zanto,et al.  Neural correlates of rhythmic expectancy , 2006 .

[251]  M. van Elk,et al.  Action semantics functional and neural dynamics , 2010 .

[252]  Jerald D. Kralik,et al.  Real-time prediction of hand trajectory by ensembles of cortical neurons in primates , 2000, Nature.

[253]  J. Majdandzic.  Cerebral mechanisms of processing action goals in self and others , 2003 .

[254]  A. Schellekens,et al.  Gene-environment interaction and intermediate phenotypes in alcohol dependence. , 2011 .

[255]  Michael Falkenstein,et al.  Effects of attention and time-pressure on P300 subcomponents and implications for mental workload research , 1995, Biological Psychology.

[256]  Nikolaus Weiskopf,et al.  Real-time fMRI and its application to neurofeedback , 2012, NeuroImage.

[257]  B. Poser,et al.  Techniques for BOLD and blood volume weighted fMRI , 2009 .

[258]  M. Grosse-Wentrup,et al.  Towards brain-robot interfaces in stroke rehabilitation , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics.

[259]  Sercan Taha Ahi,et al.  A Dictionary-Driven P300 Speller With a Modified Interface , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[260]  Thilo Hinterberger,et al.  An Auditory Brain-Computer Interface Based on the Self-Regulation of Slow Cortical Potentials , 2005, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[261]  H. Flor,et al.  A spelling device for the paralysed , 1999, Nature.

[262]  Peter Desain,et al.  Subjective rhythmisation as a paradigm for an EEG-driven BCI , 2008 .

[263]  Roel M. Willems,et al.  Neural reflections of meaning in gesture, language, and action , 2009 .

[264]  Jerry B. Harvey,et al.  The Abilene Paradox and Other Meditations on Management , 1988 .

[265]  K. Smulders.  Cognitive control of gait and balance in patients with chronic stroke and Parkinson's disease , 2014 .

[266]  A. Tieleman,et al.  Myotonic dystrophy type 2. A newly diagnosed disease in the Netherlands , 2011 .

[267]  M. Kos,et al.  On the waves of language : electrophysiological reflections on semantic and syntactic processing , 2013 .

[268]  Carl Elliott,et al.  Is It Ethical to Use Enhancement Technologies to Make Us Better than Well? , 2004, PLoS medicine.

[269]  Ilona B. Bruinsma.  Amyloidogenic proteins in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Interaction with chaperones and inflammation , 2011 .

[270]  P. V. Eijndhoven.  State and trait characteristics of early course major depressive disorder , 2012 .

[271]  C. Vesper,et al.  Acting together: Mechanisms of intentional coordination , 2013 .

[272]  M. Thaut,et al.  Rhythmic auditory-motor facilitation of gait patterns in patients with Parkinson's disease. , 1997, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[273]  María Herrojo Ruiz,et al.  Unsupervised statistical learning underpins computational, behavioural, and neural manifestations of musical expectation , 2010, NeuroImage.

[274]  L. V. Noorden,et al.  Resonance in the Perception of Musical Pulse , 1999 .

[275]  W. K. Simmons,et al.  Self-Regulation of Amygdala Activation Using Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback , 2011, PloS one.

[276]  J. A. Wilson,et al.  Two-dimensional movement control using electrocorticographic signals in humans , 2008, Journal of neural engineering.

[277]  M. Wyczesany,et al.  Covariation of mood and brain activity: Integration of subjective selfreport data with quantitative EEG measures , 2010 .

[278]  S. I. van Aalderen-Smeets.  Neural dynamics of visual selection , 2007 .

[279]  Jason Farquhar,et al.  Name that tune: Decoding music from the listening brain , 2011, NeuroImage.

[280]  Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson,et al.  Rhythm type and articulatory dynamics in English, French and Japanese , 1993 .

[281]  Clemens Brunner,et al.  Mu rhythm (de)synchronization and EEG single-trial classification of different motor imagery tasks , 2006, NeuroImage.

[282]  G. A. van Wingen,et al.  Biological determinants of amygdala functioning. , 2009 .

[283]  M. Pearce,et al.  Sweet Anticipation : Music and the Psychology of Expectation , 2007 .

[284]  Heiko C. Bergmann.  Two is not always better than one. On the functional and neural (in)dependence of working memory and long-term memory , 2014 .

[285]  Shin'ichiro Kanoh,et al.  A Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) System Based on Auditory Stream Segregation , 2010 .

[286]  M. Kleinnijenhuis,et al.  Imaging fibres in the brain , 2014 .

[287]  B. Blankertz,et al.  A New Auditory Multi-Class Brain-Computer Interface Paradigm: Spatial Hearing as an Informative Cue , 2010, PloS one.

[288]  Ana Navarro Cebrián,et al.  Electrophysiological correlates of accurate mental image formation in auditory perception and imagery tasks , 2010, Brain Research.

[289]  I. Nelken,et al.  Transient Induced Gamma-Band Response in EEG as a Manifestation of Miniature Saccades , 2008, Neuron.

[290]  Sebo Uithol,et al.  Representing action and intention , 2012 .

[291]  C. Drake,et al.  The “Ticktock” of Our Internal Clock , 2003, Psychological science.

[292]  Jason Farquhar,et al.  Subjective rhythmization as a paradigm for BCI , 2009 .

[293]  Jason Farquhar,et al.  Effects of Stimulus Type and of Error-Correcting Code Design on BCI Speller Performance , 2008, NIPS.

[294]  L. Xu,et al.  The non-preganglionic Edinger-Westphal nucleus: an integration center for energy balance and stress adaption , 2008 .

[295]  Esther Aarts,et al.  Resisting temptation: the role of the anterior cingulate cortex in adjusting cognitive control , 2004 .

[296]  Huadong Xiang,et al.  The language networks of the brain , 2012 .

[297]  L. Janssen,et al.  Planning and execution of (bi)manual grasping , 2012 .

[298]  Lourens J P Nonkes,et al.  Serotonin transporter gene variance causes individual differences in rat behaviour: for better and for worse , 2012 .

[299]  A. Lüttjohann.  The role of the cortico-thalamo-cortical system in absence epilepsy: Unraveling brain networks using multi-site local field potential recordings, dynamical signal analysis and deep brain stimulation , 2013 .

[300]  K. Grootens,et al.  Cognitive dysfunction and effects of antipsychotics in schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder. , 2010 .

[301]  H. Greely,et al.  On Neuroethics , 2007, Science.

[302]  H. V. Dijk,et al.  The state of the brain: How alpha oscillations shape behavior and event-related responses , 2010 .

[303]  P. Terry,et al.  Informed consent in clinical medicine. , 2007, Chest.

[304]  J. P. van Dijk,et al.  On the number of motor units. , 2010 .

[305]  J. Brust,et al.  Musicophilia. Tales of Music and the Brain. , 2008 .

[306]  G. Janssen.  Diagnostic assessment of psychiatric patients : A contextual perspective on executive functioning , 2014 .

[307]  M J Farah,et al.  Perceptual interference and facilitation with auditory imagery , 1983, Perception & psychophysics.

[308]  Martha J. Farah,et al.  Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience , 2002, Nature Neuroscience.

[309]  Reinhold Scherer,et al.  Steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP)-based communication: impact of harmonic frequency components , 2005, Journal of neural engineering.

[310]  K. Jellinger,et al.  Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice, and Policy , 2006 .

[311]  K. Desloovere,et al.  Turning in Parkinson's disease patients and controls: The effect of auditory cues , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[312]  Donatella Mattia,et al.  A Brain-Computer Interface as Input Channel for a Standard Assistive Technology Software , 2011, Clinical EEG and neuroscience.

[313]  Jens Clausen,et al.  Conceptual and ethical issues with brain–hardware interfaces , 2011, Current opinion in psychiatry.

[314]  Willem F. G. Haselager,et al.  Did I Do That? Brain–Computer Interfacing and the Sense of Agency , 2012, Minds and Machines.

[315]  N. Birbaumer,et al.  An auditory oddball (P300) spelling system for brain-computer interfaces. , 2009, Psychophysiology.

[316]  Robert Oostenveld,et al.  Using Brain–Computer Interfaces and Brain-State Dependent Stimulation as Tools in Cognitive Neuroscience , 2011, Front. Psychology.

[317]  P. V. Deurzen,et al.  Information processing and depressive symptoms in healthy adolescents , 2013 .

[318]  Peter Desain,et al.  Single trial ERP allows Detection of Perceived and Imagined Rhythm , 2003, IJCAI 2003.

[319]  W. Glannon.  Defining right and wrong in brain science : essential readings in neuroethics , 2007 .

[320]  M. Bauer,et al.  Functional roles of rhythmic neuronal activity in the human visual and somatosensory system , 2008 .

[321]  A. Roskies,et al.  Neuroethics beyond genethics , 2007, EMBO reports.

[322]  S. Kosslyn,et al.  Neural foundations of imagery , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[323]  Kenneth J. Pope,et al.  Relation of Gamma Oscillations in Scalp Recordings to Muscular Activity , 2009, Brain Topography.

[324]  M. Severens,et al.  Towards clinical BCI applications; assistive technology and gait rehabilitation , 2008 .

[325]  G. Borasio,et al.  Breaking the news in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. , 2004, Journal of the neurological sciences.

[326]  Amy P. Abernethy,et al.  Conflict associated with decisions to limit life-sustaining treatment in intensive care units , 2001, Journal of General Internal Medicine.

[327]  David M. Santucci,et al.  Learning to Control a Brain–Machine Interface for Reaching and Grasping by Primates , 2003, PLoS biology.

[328]  R. Boyacioglu,et al.  On the application of ultra-fast fMRI and high resolution multiband fMRI at high static field strengths , 2014 .

[329]  G. Pfurtscheller,et al.  Brain-Computer Interfaces for Communication and Control. , 2011, Communications of the ACM.

[330]  R. Vlek,et al.  Combined EEG-fNIRS Decoding of Motor Attempt and Imagery for Brain Switch Control: An Offline Study in Patients With Tetraplegia , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[331]  N. Birbaumer,et al.  Brain-computer communication: self-regulation of slow cortical potentials for verbal communication. , 2001, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[332]  A. Platonov.  Mechanisms of binocular motion rivalry , 2014 .

[333]  Christa Neuper,et al.  Future prospects of ERD/ERS in the context of brain-computer interface (BCI) developments. , 2006, Progress in brain research.

[334]  G. Poelmans,et al.  Genes and protein networks for neurodevelopmental disorders. , 2011 .

[335]  S. Overeem,et al.  Modulation of human balance reactions. , 2010 .

[336]  E. Donchin,et al.  A P300-based brain–computer interface: Initial tests by ALS patients , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[337]  J. Polich.  Updating P300: An integrative theory of P3a and P3b , 2007, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[338]  S. Radke.  Acting social: Neuroendocrine and clinical modulations of approach and decision behavior , 2014 .

[339]  C. Grady,et al.  What makes clinical research ethical? , 2000, JAMA.

[340]  H. V. Beek,et al.  The regulation of cerebral perfusion in patients with Alzheimer's disease , 2006 .

[341]  R. Näätänen.  Processing negativity: an evoked-potential reflection of selective attention. , 1982, Psychological bulletin.

[342]  A. Snik,et al.  On the role of eye and head position in spatial localisation behaviour , 2011 .

[343]  B. Kapp,et al.  A history and theory of informed consent , 1986 .

[344]  R. Drake,et al.  Requirements for multidisciplinary teamwork in psychiatric rehabilitation. , 2001, Psychiatric services.

[345]  O. Sacks,et al.  The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales , 1985 .

[346]  J. Lommertzen,et al.  Visuomotor Coupling at Different Levels of Complexity , 2004 .

[347]  Bara Ricou,et al.  Research in critically ill patients: standards of informed consent , 2007, Critical care.