Global direct radiative forcing due to multicomponent anthropogenic and natural aerosols

Global simulations of the composition of and direct forcing due to aerosols containing natural and/or anthropogenic sulfate, nitrate, chloride, carbonate, ammonium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, black carbon, organic matter, silica, ferrous oxide, and aluminum oxide were carried out. Chloride and natural sulfate were found to be the most important natural aerosol constituents in the atmosphere in terms of solar plus thermal-infrared forcing. Sea spray was the most important natural aerosol type, indicating that it should be accounted for in weather and climate calculations. Ammonium was found to have a positive direct forcing, since it reduces water uptake in sulfate-containing solutions; thus, anthropogenic ammonium contributes to global warming. The magnitudes of ammonium and nitrate forcing were smaller than those of chloride or sulfate forcing. When organics were divided into three groups with different assumed UV absorption characteristics, total aerosol direct forcing at the tropopause increased by about +0.03 to +0.05 W m−2 (direct forcing by organics remained negative), suggesting that UV absorption by organics is a nontrivial component of the global energy balance. Gypsum [CaSO4-2H2O], sal ammoniac [NH4Cl], halite [NaCl], halite, and nitrum [KNO3] were estimated to be the most common sulfate-, ammonium-, sodium-, chloride-, and nitrate-containing solid-phase aerosol constituents, respectively, in the global atmosphere. Solid formation in aerosols was found to increase total-aerosol direct forcing by +0.03 to +0.05 W m−2. Spatial and vertical forcing estimates, sensitivities of forcing to relative humidity and concentration, and estimates of global aerosol liquid water content are given. Modeled aerosol optical properties are compared with satellite and field measurements.

[1]  M. Jacobson.  A physically‐based treatment of elemental carbon optics: Implications for global direct forcing of aerosols , 2000 .

[2]  C. Liousse,et al.  Construction of a 1° × 1° fossil fuel emission data set for carbonaceous aerosol and implementation and radiative impact in the ECHAM4 model , 1999 .

[3]  M. Jacobson.  Studying the effects of calcium and magnesium on size-distributed nitrate and ammonium with EQUISOLV II , 1999 .

[4]  John H. Seinfeld,et al.  Global concentrations of tropospheric sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium aerosol simulated in a general circulation model , 1999 .

[5]  P. Russell,et al.  Estimation of aerosol direct radiative effects over the mid‐latitude North Atlantic from satellite and in situ measurements , 1999 .

[6]  Jay R. Herman,et al.  Distribution of UV radiation at the Earth's surface from TOMS-measured UV-backscattered radiances , 1999 .

[7]  I. Tegen.  Reply [to "Comment on `Contribution of different aerosol species to the global aerosol extinction optical thickness: Estimates from model results' by Tegen et al."] , 1999 .

[8]  Ramaswamy,et al.  Tropospheric Aerosol Climate Forcing in Clear-Sky Satellite Observations over the Oceans. , 1999, Science.

[9]  M. Jacobson.  Isolating nitrated and aromatic aerosols and nitrated aromatic gases as sources of ultraviolet light absorption , 1999 .

[10]  M. Zheng,et al.  The solvent-extractable organic compounds in the Indonesia biomass burning aerosols - characterization studies , 1999 .

[11]  Jonathan P. Taylor,et al.  Comparison of observed and modeled direct aerosol forcing during TARFOX , 1999 .

[12]  S. Kinne,et al.  Aerosol-induced radiative flux changes off the United States mid-Atlantic coast: Comparison of values calculated from sunphotometer and in situ data with those measured by airborne pyranometer , 1999 .

[13]  Philip B. Russell,et al.  Aerosol properties and radiative effects in the United States East Coast haze plume: An overview of the Tropospheric Aerosol Radiative Forcing Observational Experiment (TARFOX) , 1999 .

[14]  D. Blake,et al.  Emission factors of hydrocarbons, halocarbons, trace gases and particles from biomass burning in Brazil , 1998 .

[15]  D. Blake,et al.  Physical, chemical, and optical properties of regional hazes dominated by smoke in Brazil , 1998 .

[16]  W. Elbert,et al.  Airborne studies of aerosol emissions from savanna fires in , 1998 .

[17]  Joseph M. Prospero,et al.  Effect of relative humidity on light scattering by mineral dust aerosol as measured in the marine boundary layer over the tropical Atlantic Ocean , 1998 .

[18]  Ina Tegen,et al.  Climate Response to Soil Dust Aerosols , 1998 .

[19]  M. Jacobson,et al.  Nitric acid scavenging by mineral and biomass burning aerosols , 1998 .

[20]  G. Myhre,et al.  Estimation of the direct radiative forcing due to sulfate and soot aerosols , 1998 .

[21]  C. C. Chuang,et al.  Climate forcing by carbonaceous and sulfate aerosols , 1998 .

[22]  A Lacis,et al.  Climate forcings in the industrial era. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[23]  A. Nenes,et al.  Marginal direct climate forcing by atmospheric aerosols , 1998 .

[24]  P. Quinn,et al.  Aerosol optical properties in the marine boundary layer during the First Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1) and the underlying chemical and physical aerosol properties , 1998 .

[25]  Larry W. Thomason,et al.  Radiative forcing from the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption , 1998 .

[26]  V. Ramanathan,et al.  Direct observations of aerosol radiative forcing over the tropical Indian Ocean during the January-F , 1998 .

[27]  James J. Hack,et al.  Response of Climate Simulation to a New Convective Parameterization in the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model (CCM3) , 1998 .

[28]  James J. Hack,et al.  The Hydrologic and Thermodynamic Characteristics of the NCAR CCM3 , 1998 .

[29]  D. Randall,et al.  A cumulus parameterization with multiple cloud base levels , 1998 .

[30]  J. Dibb,et al.  Influence of vertical transport on free tropospheric aerosols over the central USA in springtime , 1998 .

[31]  James B. Kerr,et al.  Satellite estimation of spectral surface UV irradiance in the presence of tropospheric aerosols , 1998 .

[32]  V. Ramaswamy,et al.  Global sensitivity studies of the direct radiative forcing due to anthropogenic sulfate and black carbon aerosols , 1998 .

[33]  Xu Li,et al.  Particle shape and internal inhomogeneity effects on the optical properties of tropospheric aerosols of relevance to climate forcing , 1998 .

[34]  Tami C. Bond,et al.  Quantifying the emission of light‐absorbing particles: Measurements tailored to climate studies , 1998 .

[35]  Patrick Minnis,et al.  Forcings and chaos in interannual to decadal climate change , 1997 .

[36]  M. Wendisch,et al.  Measurements and modelling of aerosol single-scattering albedo : Progress, problems and prospects , 1997 .

[37]  Mian Chin,et al.  Contribution of different aerosol species to the global aerosol extinction optical thickness: Estimates from model results , 1997 .

[38]  Shao-Meng Li,et al.  Chemical and physical characterizations of atmospheric aerosols over southern California , 1997 .

[39]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Effect of clouds on direct aerosol radiative forcing of climate , 1997 .

[40]  C. Platt.  A Parameterization of the Visible Extinction Coefficient of Ice Clouds in Terms of the Ice/Water Content , 1997 .

[41]  Larry L. Stowe,et al.  Characterization of tropospheric aerosols over the oceans with the NOAA advanced very high resolution radiometer optical thickness operational product , 1997 .

[42]  A. Slingo,et al.  General Circulation Model Calculations of the Direct Radiative Forcing by Anthropogenic Sulfate and Fossil-Fuel Soot Aerosol , 1997 .

[43]  U. Lohmann,et al.  The atmospheric sulfur cycle in ECHAM-4 and its impact on the shortwave radiation , 1997 .

[44]  L. Thomason,et al.  A global climatology of stratospheric aerosol surface area density deduced from Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment II measurements: 1984–1994 , 1997 .

[45]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Terrestrial sources and distribution of atmospheric sulphur , 1997 .

[46]  Joyce E. Penner,et al.  An assessment of the radiative effects of anthropogenic sulfate , 1997 .

[47]  Jean-Pierre Blanchet,et al.  Modeling sea‐salt aerosols in the atmosphere: 2. Atmospheric concentrations and fluxes , 1997 .

[48]  K. Trenberth,et al.  Earth's annual global mean energy budget , 1997 .

[49]  I. Tang.  Thermodynamic and optical properties of mixed‐salt aerosols of atmospheric importance , 1997 .

[50]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Role of mineral aerosol as a reactive surface in the global troposphere , 1996 .

[51]  J. Penner,et al.  A global three‐dimensional model study of carbonaceous aerosols , 1996 .

[52]  J. Wilson,et al.  A global black carbon aerosol model , 1996 .

[53]  R. Hitzenberger,et al.  Modal character of atmospheric black carbon size distributions , 1996 .

[54]  Mian Chin,et al.  A global three‐dimensional model of tropospheric sulfate , 1996 .

[55]  P. Saxena,et al.  Water-soluble organics in atmospheric particles: A critical review of the literature and application of thermodynamics to identify candidate compounds , 1996 .

[56]  Phillip A. Arkin,et al.  Analyses of Global Monthly Precipitation Using Gauge Observations, Satellite Estimates, and Numerical Model Predictions , 1996 .

[57]  A. Lacis,et al.  The influence on climate forcing of mineral aerosols from disturbed soils , 1996, Nature.

[58]  Olivier Boucher,et al.  General circulation model assessment of the sensitivity of direct climate forcing by anthropogenic sulfate aerosols to aerosol size and chemistry , 1995 .

[59]  Stephen E. Schwartz,et al.  Direct shortwave forcing of climate by the anthropogenic sulfate aerosol: Sensitivity to particle size, composition, and relative humidity , 1995 .

[60]  John H. Seinfeld,et al.  Sensitivity of direct climate forcing by atmospheric aerosols to aerosol size and composition , 1995 .

[61]  Judith C. Chow,et al.  Temporal and spatial variations of PM2.5 and PM10 aerosol in the Southern California air quality study , 1994 .

[62]  K. E. Taylor,et al.  Response of the climate system to atmospheric aerosols and greenhouse gases , 1994, Nature.

[63]  S. Friedlander,et al.  Size distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and elemental carbon. 1. Sampling, measurement methods, and source characterization. , 1994, Environmental science & technology.

[64]  J. Penner,et al.  Quantifying and minimizing uncertainty of climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols , 1994 .

[65]  J. Kiehl,et al.  The Relative Roles of Sulfate Aerosols and Greenhouse Gases in Climate Forcing , 1993, Science.

[66]  R. Hitzenberger,et al.  Comparisons of the measured and calculated specific absorption coefficients for urban aerosol samples in Vienna , 1993 .

[67]  Bryan J. Johnson,et al.  Balloonborne measurements of the Pinatubo aerosol size distribution and volatility at Laramie, Wyomi , 1992 .

[68]  L. Olsen,et al.  Greenhouse Effect Detection Experiment (GEDEX). Selected data sets , 1992 .

[69]  Henning Rodhe,et al.  A global three-dimensional model of the tropospheric sulfur cycle , 1991 .

[70]  Robert J. Charlson,et al.  Perturbation of the northern hemisphere radiative balance by backscattering from anthropogenic sulfate aerosols , 1991 .

[71]  D. Allen,et al.  The sources and size distributions of organonitrates in Los Angeles aerosol , 1991 .

[72]  A. W. Stelson.  URBAN AEROSOL REFRACTIVE INDEX PREDICTION BY PARTIAL MOLAR REFRACTION APPROACH , 1990 .

[73]  C. McKay,et al.  Rapid calculation of radiative heating rates and photodissociation rates in inhomogeneous multiple scattering atmospheres , 1989 .

[74]  W. Sturges,et al.  Chlorine, Bromine AND Iodine in arctic aerosols , 1988 .

[75]  R. Zellner,et al.  B. Finlayson‐Pitts, J. N. Pitts, Jr.: Atmospheric Chemistry: Fundamentals and Experimental Techniques, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto and Singapore 1986. 1098 Seiten, Preis: £ 57.45. , 1986 .

[76]  T. Ackerman,et al.  Algorithms for the calculation of scattering by stratified spheres. , 1981, Applied optics.

[77]  A. Arakawa,et al.  A Potential Enstrophy and Energy Conserving Scheme for the Shallow Water Equations , 1981 .

[78]  Ronald M. Welch,et al.  Solar Radiation and Clouds , 1980 .

[79]  K. T. Whitby.  THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SULFUR AEROSOLS , 1978 .

[80]  R. O'brien,et al.  Formation of photochemical aerosol from hydrocarbons. Atmospheric analysis , 1975 .