Chronotype Influences Diurnal Variations in the Excitability of the Human Motor Cortex and the Ability to Generate Torque during a Maximum Voluntary Contraction

The ability to generate torque during a maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) changes over the day. The present experiments were designed to determine the influence of an individual's chronotype on this diurnal rhythm and on cortical, spinal, and peripheral mechanisms that may be related to torque production. After completing a questionnaire to determine chronotype, 18 subjects (9 morning people, 9 evening people) participated in 4 data collection sessions (at 09:00, 13:00, 17:00, and 21:00) over 1 day. We used magnetic stimulation of the cortex, electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve, electromyographic (EMG) recordings of muscle activity, and isometric torque measurements to evaluate the excitability of the motor cortex, the spinal cord, and the torque-generating capacity of the triceps surae (TS) muscles. We found that for morning people, cortical excitability was highest at 09:00, spinal excitability was highest at 21:00, and there were no significant differences in TS EMG or torque produced during MVCs over the day. In contrast, evening people showed parallel increases in cortical and spinal excitability over the day, and these were associated with increased TS EMG and MVC torque. There were no differences at the level of the muscle over the day between morning and evening people. We propose that the simultaneous increases in cortical and spinal excitability increased central nervous system drive to the muscles of evening people, thus increasing torque production over the day. These differences in cortical excitability and performance of a motor task between morning and evening people have implications for maximizing human performance and highlight the influence of chronotype on an individual's diurnal rhythms.

[1]  P. Merton Voluntary strength and fatigue , 1954, The Journal of physiology.

[2]  J. Horne,et al.  A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms. , 1976, International journal of chronobiology.

[3]  B. Ekblom,et al.  Influence of muscle temperature on maximal muscle strength and power output in human skeletal muscles. , 1979, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[4]  G. Kerkhof,et al.  Diurnal differences between morning-type and evening-type subjects in self-rated alertness, body temperature and the visual and auditory evoked potential , 1980, Neuroscience Letters.

[5]  Sleep schedules and peak times of oral temperature and alertness in morning and evening 'types'. , 1982, Ergonomics.

[6]  K. Pearson,et al.  Effects of temperature on identified central neurons that control jumping in the grasshopper , 1982, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[7]  D B Chaffin,et al.  Quantification of human performance circadian rhythms. , 1983, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[8]  K W Ranatunga,et al.  Contractions of a human skeletal muscle at different temperatures. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[9]  M. A. Collins,et al.  Diurnal variations in responses to exercise of "morning types" and "evening types". , 1988, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness.

[10]  J. Wolpaw,et al.  Diurnal rhythms in primate spinal reflexes and accompanying cortical somatosensory evoked potentials. , 1989, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[11]  S. Miller,et al.  Excitation of the corticospinal tract by electromagnetic and electrical stimulation of the scalp in the macaque monkey. , 1990, The Journal of physiology.

[12]  W. Vincent,et al.  A Comparison of Morning and Evening “Types” During Maximum Exercise , 1992 .

[13]  B. Bigland-ritchie,et al.  Muscle temperature, contractile speed, and motoneuron firing rates during human voluntary contractions. , 1992, Journal of applied physiology.

[14]  T. Reilly,et al.  Investigation of circadian rhythms in anaerobic power and capacity of the legs. , 1992, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness.

[15]  G. Deuschl,et al.  Task‐related changes in the effect of magnetic brain stimulation on spinal neurones in man. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[16]  J C Rothwell,et al.  Effect of tonic voluntary activity on the excitability of human motor cortex. , 1994, The Journal of physiology.

[17]  J. Nielsen,et al.  Is presynaptic inhibition distributed to corticospinal fibres in man? , 1994, The Journal of physiology.

[18]  Alain Martin,et al.  Diurnal rhythm of the muscular performance of elbow flexors during isometric contractions. , 1996, Chronobiology international.

[19]  B. Steinhoff,et al.  Effects of antiepileptic drugs on motor cortex excitability in humans: A transcranial magnetic stimulation study , 1996, Annals of neurology.

[20]  T. Reilly,et al.  Circadian Variation in Sports Performance , 1996, Sports medicine.

[21]  T. Bernard,et al.  Time-of-day effects in maximal anaerobic leg exercise , 1997, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology.

[22]  S. Miller,et al.  Comparison of activation of corticospinal neurons and spinal motor neurons by magnetic and electrical transcranial stimulation in the lumbosacral cord of the anaesthetized monkey. , 1997, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[23]  T. Fukunaga,et al.  Architectural and functional features of human triceps surae muscles during contraction. , 1998, Journal of applied physiology.

[24]  J. Nielsen,et al.  The effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation on the soleus H reflex during human walking , 1998, The Journal of physiology.

[25]  J. B. Leeper,et al.  Voluntary activation of human elbow flexor muscles during maximal concentric contractions , 1998, The Journal of physiology.

[26]  M Hallett,et al.  Dextromethorphan decreases the excitability of the human motor cortex , 1998, Neurology.

[27]  J. Duchateau,et al.  Effect of time of day on force variation in a human muscle , 1999, Muscle & nerve.

[28]  A. Gauthier,et al.  CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS IN HUMAN MUSCULAR EFFICIENCY: CONTINUOUS PHYSICAL EXERCISE VERSUS CONTINUOUS REST. A CROSSOVER STUDY , 2000, Chronobiology international.

[29]  T H Monk,et al.  CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS OF PERFORMANCE: NEW TRENDS , 2000, Chronobiology international.

[30]  J. Nielsen,et al.  Differential changes in corticospinal and Ia input to tibialis anterior and soleus motor neurones during voluntary contraction in man. , 2000, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[31]  Alain Martin,et al.  Time of day effects on isometric and isokinetic torque developed during elbow flexion in humans , 2001, European Journal of Applied Physiology.

[32]  S. Riek,et al.  Reliability of the input–output properties of the cortico-spinal pathway obtained from transcranial magnetic and electrical stimulation , 2001, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[33]  David G. Behm,et al.  Intermuscle differences in activation , 2002, Muscle & nerve.

[34]  Xiang Yang Chen,et al.  Corticospinal tract transection reduces H-reflex circadian rhythm in rats , 2002, Brain Research.

[35]  E Cafarelli,et al.  Caffeine increases spinal excitability in humans , 2003, Muscle and Nerve.

[36]  T. Reilly,et al.  Circadian rhythms in blood lactate concentration during incremental ergometer rowing , 2004, European Journal of Applied Physiology.

[37]  Alain Martin,et al.  Neuromuscular Efficiency of the Triceps Surae in Induced and Voluntary Contractions: Morning and Evening Evaluations , 2004, Chronobiology international.

[38]  J. Nielsen,et al.  Sensitivity of monosynaptic test reflexes to facilitation and inhibition as a function of the test reflex size: a study in man and the cat , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[39]  Alain Martin,et al.  Morning to evening changes in the electrical and mechanical properties of human soleus motor units activated by H reflex and M wave , 2005, European Journal of Applied Physiology.

[40]  Julien Gondin,et al.  Time‐of‐Day Effect on the Torque and Neuromuscular Properties of Dominant and Non‐Dominant Quadriceps Femoris , 2005, Chronobiology international.

[41]  M. Tegenthoff,et al.  The glutamate antagonist Riluzole suppresses intracortical facilitation , 2005, Journal of Neural Transmission.

[42]  E. Zehr,et al.  Diurnal changes in the amplitude of the Hoffmann reflex in the human soleus but not in the flexor carpi radialis muscle , 2006, Experimental Brain Research.

[43]  E. Zehr,et al.  Corticospinal excitability is lower during rhythmic arm movement than during tonic contraction. , 2006, Journal of neurophysiology.

[44]  Dirk H. Hellhammer,et al.  Morningness and eveningness: The free cortisol rise after awakening in “early birds” and “night owls” , 2006, Biological Psychology.

[45]  Diurnal variations in auditory & visual reaction time in young adults , 2006 .

[46]  Alain Martin,et al.  Plantar Flexion Torque as a Function of Time of Day , 2005, International journal of sports medicine.

[47]  Alun G Williams,et al.  Methodological issues with the interpolated twitch technique. , 2007, Journal of electromyography and kinesiology : official journal of the International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology.

[48]  V. Mongrain,et al.  Increased homeostatic response to behavioral sleep fragmentation in morning types compared to evening types. , 2007, Sleep.

[49]  T. Reilly,et al.  Diurnal Variation in Temperature, Mental and Physical Performance, and Tasks Specifically Related to Football (Soccer) , 2007, Chronobiology international.

[50]  M. Tóth,et al.  Diurnal Alterations of Brain Electrical Activity in Healthy Adults: A LORETA Study , 2007, Brain Topography.

[51]  Hanna Lehnkering,et al.  Influence of Chronotype, Season, and Sex of Subject on Sleep Behavior of Young Adults , 2007, Chronobiology international.

[52]  C. Schmidt,et al.  A time to think: Circadian rhythms in human cognition , 2007, Cognitive neuropsychology.

[53]  C. von Gall,et al.  Strong Resetting of the Mammalian Clock by Constant Light Followed by Constant Darkness , 2008, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[54]  C. M. LaJambe,et al.  Collegiate Rowing Crew Performance Varies by Morningness-Eveningness , 2008, Journal of strength and conditioning research.

[55]  R. Greenwood,et al.  Differing effects of intracortical circuits on plasticity , 2009, Experimental Brain Research.

[56]  K. Häkkinen,et al.  Diurnal variation in maximal and submaximal strength, power and neural activation of leg extensors in men: multiple sampling across two consecutive days. , 2008, International journal of sports medicine.

[57]  J. Toby Mordkoff,et al.  Chronotype and time-of-day influences on the alerting, orienting, and executive components of attention , 2008, Experimental Brain Research.