Central mechanisms underlying anti-hypertensive effects of exercise training

Neurogenic hypertension, the primary form of essential hypertension, is one of the most common diseases worldwide. Hypertension is a risk factor for many cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks and stroke; therefore, it is crucial to maintain arterial blood pressure (BP) within the normal range. Regular aerobic exercise at moderate intensities can lower basal BP, and is a recommended therapy to prevent or improve primary hypertension. However, the mechanisms underlying the anti-hypertensive effects of exercise remain unknown. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms for the anti-hypertensive effects of exercise training/therapy that are hypothesised from recent findings, including our own. In particular, we discuss the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) of the brainstem, which is involved in mechanisms underlying the manifestation of neurogenic hypertension. Moreover, the NTS may also be involved in the anti-hypertensive effects of exercise training. However, exercise training does not seem to improve causative genetic factors for neurogenic hypertension in the NTS. Nevertheless, exercise training may affect other mechanisms responsible for neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions within the NTS, which also regulate BP homeostasis. We hope this review will further enhance research in this and promote exercise habits that help delay or even prevent the progression of essential hypertension.

[1]  A. Lemmey.  Exercise Prescription for Populations with other Chronic Diseases and Health Conditions , 2014 .

[2]  M. Raizada,et al.  Neuroimmune communication in hypertension and obesity: a new therapeutic angle? , 2013, Pharmacology & therapeutics.

[3]  David Murphy,et al.  Excessive Leukotriene B4 in Nucleus Tractus Solitarii Is Prohypertensive in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats , 2013, Hypertension.

[4]  H. Waki.  Central mechanisms of cardiovascular regulation during exercise : Integrative functions of the nucleus of the solitary tract , 2012 .

[5]  M. Kaufman.  The exercise pressor reflex in animals , 2012, Experimental physiology.

[6]  K. Matsukawa.  Central command: control of cardiac sympathetic and vagal efferent nerve activity and the arterial baroreflex during spontaneous motor behaviour in animals , 2012, Experimental physiology.

[7]  T. Saruta,et al.  Importance of rostral ventrolateral medulla neurons in determining efferent sympathetic nerve activity and blood pressure , 2011, Hypertension Research.

[8]  J. Paton,et al.  Contributions of vascular inflammation in the brainstem for neurogenic hypertension , 2011, Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology.

[9]  J. Paton,et al.  Down-regulation of chemokine Ccl5 gene expression in the NTS of SHR may be pro-hypertensive , 2011, Journal of hypertension.

[10]  K. Schlüter,et al.  Interaction between exercise and hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats: a meta-analysis of experimental studies , 2010, Hypertension Research.

[11]  M. Raizada,et al.  Brain Microglial Cytokines in Neurogenic Hypertension , 2010, Hypertension.

[12]  Guido Grassi,et al.  The ‘neuroadrenergic hypothesis’ in hypertension: current evidence , 2010, Experimental physiology.

[13]  M. Maeda,et al.  Evidence of specific inflammatory condition in nucleus tractus solitarii of spontaneously hypertensive rats , 2010, Experimental physiology.

[14]  E. Caldini,et al.  Baroreflex deficit blunts exercise training‐induced cardiovascular and autonomic adaptations in hypertensive rats , 2010, Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology.

[15]  T. Ogihara,et al.  The Japanese Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension (JSH 2009) , 2009, Hypertension Research.

[16]  J. Stern,et al.  Exercise‐induced neuronal plasticity in central autonomic networks: role in cardiovascular control , 2009, Experimental physiology.

[17]  R. Dampney,et al.  Hypothalamic mechanisms coordinating cardiorespiratory function during exercise and defensive behaviour , 2008, Autonomic Neuroscience.

[18]  L. Michelini,et al.  Training-Induced Pressure Fall in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats Is Associated With Reduced Angiotensinogen mRNA Expression Within the Nucleus Tractus Solitarii , 2007, Hypertension.

[19]  J. Paton,et al.  Junctional Adhesion Molecule-1 Is Upregulated in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats: Evidence for a Prohypertensive Role Within the Brain Stem , 2007, Hypertension.

[20]  M. Rondon,et al.  Exercise Training Restores Baroreflex Sensitivity in Never-Treated Hypertensive Patients , 2007, Hypertension.

[21]  M. Raizada,et al.  Circulating angiotensin II and dietary salt: Converging signals for neurogenic hypertension , 2007, Current hypertension reports.

[22]  E. Hasser,et al.  Putative role of the NTS in alterations in neural control of the circulation following exercise training in rats. , 2006, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[23]  Jeffrey T Potts,et al.  Inhibitory neurotransmission in the nucleus tractus solitarii: implications for baroreflex resetting during exercise , 2006, Experimental physiology.

[24]  G. Grassi.  Counteracting the sympathetic nervous system in essential hypertension , 2004, Current opinion in nephrology and hypertension.

[25]  G. Toney,et al.  Effect of Intravenous Angiotensin II Infusion on Responses to Hypothalamic PVN Injection of Bicuculline , 2003, Hypertension.

[26]  Laguzzi Raul.  Serotonin2 Receptors in the Nucleus Tractus Solitarius: Characterization and Role in the Baroreceptor Reflex Arc , 2003, Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.

[27]  J. Paton,et al.  Dynamic Exercise Attenuates Spontaneous Baroreceptor Reflex Sensitivity in Conscious Rats , 2003, Experimental physiology.

[28]  J. Mitchell,et al.  Contraction-sensitive skeletal muscle afferents inhibit arterial baroreceptor signalling in the nucleus of the solitary tract: role of intrinsic GABA interneurons , 2003, Neuroscience.

[29]  Paul A. Smith,et al.  Sympathetic neural mechanisms in white-coat hypertension. , 2002, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[30]  D. Dengel,et al.  Sympathetic activity and the heterogenous blood pressure response to exercise training in hypertensives. , 2002, Journal of applied physiology.

[31]  F. Leenen,et al.  Enhanced sympathoexcitatory and pressor responses to central Na+ in Dahl salt-sensitive vs. -resistant rats. , 2001, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[32]  K. Kanmatsuse,et al.  Enhanced serotonin-mediated responses in the nucleus tractus solitarius of spontaneously hypertensive rats , 2000, Brain Research.

[33]  H. Bengtsson,et al.  Serotonin autoreceptor function and antidepressant drug action , 2000, Journal of Psychopharmacology.

[34]  I. Meredith,et al.  Exercise Training Lowers Resting Renal But Not Cardiac Sympathetic Activity in Humans , 1991, Hypertension.

[35]  B. Egan.  Neurogenic mechanisms initiating essential hypertension. , 1989, American journal of hypertension.

[36]  A. Sved,et al.  Enhanced pressor response to GABA in the nucleus tractus solitarii of the spontaneously hypertensive rat. , 1988, European journal of pharmacology.

[37]  J. Ludbrook,et al.  Circulatory responses to onset of exercise: role of arterial and cardiac baroreflexes. , 1985, The American journal of physiology.

[38]  H. Struyker-Boudier,et al.  Effect of physical training on the development of hypertension in the spontaneously hypertensive rat , 1979, Pflügers Archiv.

[39]  W. Judy,et al.  Sympathetic Nerve Activity: Role in Regulation of Blood Pressure in the Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat , 1976, Circulation research.

[40]  D. McCloskey,et al.  Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension , 1972, The Journal of physiology.

[41]  A. Schutte,et al.  Clinical practice guidelines for the management of hypertension in the community a statement by the American Society of Hypertension and the International Society of Hypertension. , 2014, Journal of hypertension.

[42]  Yutaka Imai,et al.  The Japanese Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension (JSH 2014) , 2014, Hypertension Research.

[43]  M. Maeda,et al.  Transcriptome of the NTS in exercise-trained spontaneously hypertensive rats: implications for NTS function and plasticity in regulating blood pressure. , 2013, Physiological genomics.

[44]  B. Franklin,et al.  American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and hypertension. , 2004, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[45]  H. Sapru.  Neurotransmitters in the Nucleus Tractus Solitarius Mediating Cardiovascular Function , 2004 .

[46]  L. Michelini,et al.  Receptor changes in the nucleus tractus solitarii of the rat after exercise training. , 2001, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[47]  M. Esler,et al.  Sympathetic nervous system activation in essential hypertension, cardiac failure and psychosomatic heart disease. , 2000, Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology.

[48]  G Mancia,et al.  Baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity in essential and secondary hypertension. , 1998, Hypertension.

[49]  L. Pescatello,et al.  Exercise and Hypertension. , 1976, The Physician and sportsmedicine.