Frequency Principle in Deep Learning Beyond Gradient-descent-based Training

Frequency perspective recently makes progress in understanding deep learning. It has been widely verified in both empirical and theoretical studies that deep neural networks (DNNs) often fit the target function from low to high frequency, namely Frequency Principle (F-Principle). F-Principle sheds light on the strength and the weakness of DNNs and inspires a series of subsequent works, including theoretical studies, empirical studies and the design of efficient DNN structures etc. Previous works examine the F-Principle in gradient-descent-based training. It remains unclear whether gradient-descentbased training is a necessary condition for the F-Principle. In this paper, we show that the F-Principle exists stably in the training process of DNNs with nongradient-descent-based training, including optimization algorithms with gradient information, such as conjugate gradient and BFGS, and algorithms without gradient information, such as Powell’s method and Particle Swarm Optimization. These empirical studies show the universality of the F-Principle and provide hints for further study of F-Principle.