Carbon nanocomposite catalysts for oxygen reduction and evolution reactions: From nitrogen doping to transition-metal addition

Abstract Oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and evolution reaction (OER) are one pair of the most important electrochemical reactions associated with energy conversion and storage technologies, such as fuel cells, metal–air batteries, and water electrolyzers. However, the sluggish ORR and OER requires a significantly large quantity of precious metals (e.g., Pt or Ir) to enhance reaction activity and durability. Highly active and robust nonprecious metal catalysts (NPMCs) are desperately required to address the cost and durability issues. Among NPMC formulations studied, carbon-based catalysts hold the greatest promise to replace these precious metals in the future due to their low-cost, extremely high surface area, excellent mechanical and electrical properties, sufficient stability under harsh environments, and high functionality. In particular, nitrogen-doped carbon nanocomposites, which were prepared from “metal-free” N–C formulations and transition metals-derived M–N–C (M=Fe or Co), have demonstrated remarkably improved catalytic activity and stability in alkaline and acidic electrolytes. In this review, based on the recent progress in the field, we aim to provide an overview for both types of carbon catalysts in terms of catalyst synthesis, structure/morphology, and catalytic activity and durability enhancement. We primarily focus on elucidation of synthesis–structure–activity correlations obtained from synthesis and extensive characterization, thereby providing guidance for rational design of advanced catalysts for the ORR. Additionally, a hybrid concept of using highly ORR active carbon nanocomposites to support Pt nanoparticles was highlighted with an aim to enhance catalytic performance and reduce required precious metal loading. Beyond the ORR, opportunities and challenges of ORR/OER bifunctional carbon composite catalysts were outlined. Perspectives on these carbon-based catalysts, future approaches, and possible pathways to address current remaining challenges are also discussed.

[1]  Y. Jiao,et al.  Engineering of Carbon‐Based Electrocatalysts for Emerging Energy Conversion: From Fundamentality to Functionality , 2015, Advanced materials.

[2]  Edward F. Holby,et al.  Lattice Boltzmann Pore-Scale Investigation of Coupled Physical-electrochemical Processes in C/Pt and Non-Precious Metal Cathode Catalyst Layers in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells , 2015 .

[3]  Jan Rossmeisl,et al.  Density functional studies of functionalized graphitic materials with late transition metals for Oxygen Reduction Reactions. , 2011, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[4]  Kiyoyuki Terakura,et al.  X-ray absorption analysis of nitrogen contribution to oxygen reduction reaction in carbon alloy cathode catalysts for polymer electrolyte fuel cells , 2009 .

[5]  Zhongfan Liu,et al.  The edge- and basal-plane-specific electrochemistry of a single-layer graphene sheet , 2013, Scientific Reports.

[6]  M. Jaroniec,et al.  Origin of the Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Activity of Graphene-Based Catalysts: A Roadmap to Achieve the Best Performance , 2014, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[7]  K. Müllen,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene and its iron-based composite as efficient electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. , 2012, ACS nano.

[8]  M. Swihart,et al.  Cu-Deficient Plasmonic Cu2–xS Nanoplate Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction , 2015 .

[9]  P. Strasser,et al.  Electrocatalysis on bimetallic surfaces: modifying catalytic reactivity for oxygen reduction by voltammetric surface dealloying. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[10]  T. Nyokong,et al.  Effects of redox mediators on the catalytic activity of iron porphyrins towards oxygen reduction in acidic media , 2014 .

[11]  Svitlana Pylypenko,et al.  Cross-laboratory experimental study of non-noble-metal electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction. , 2009, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[12]  J. Goodenough,et al.  A Perovskite Oxide Optimized for Oxygen Evolution Catalysis from Molecular Orbital Principles , 2011, Science.

[13]  Frédéric Jaouen,et al.  Iron-Based Catalysts with Improved Oxygen Reduction Activity in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells , 2009, Science.

[14]  G. Henrici-Olivė,et al.  Activation of Molecular Oxygen , 1974 .

[15]  Hui Li,et al.  Highly active and durable core-corona structured bifunctional catalyst for rechargeable metal-air battery application. , 2011, Nano letters.

[16]  Umit S. Ozkan,et al.  The role of nanostructure in nitrogen-containing carbon catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction , 2006 .

[17]  Y. Xing,et al.  Hybrid Li-air battery cathodes with sparse carbon nanotube arrays directly grown on carbon fiber papers , 2013 .

[18]  F. Wei,et al.  An oxygen reduction electrocatalyst based on carbon nanotube-graphene complexes. , 2012, Nature nanotechnology.

[19]  G. Flynn,et al.  Influence of copper crystal surface on the CVD growth of large area monolayer graphene , 2011 .

[20]  Antonino S. Aricò,et al.  Performance analysis of a non-platinum group metal catalyst based on iron-aminoantipyrine for direct methanol fuel cells , 2016 .

[21]  Gang Wu,et al.  Oxygen-deficient BaTiO3−x perovskite as an efficient bifunctional oxygen electrocatalyst , 2015 .

[22]  B. Popov,et al.  Highly Active Carbon Composite Electrocatalysts for PEM Fuel Cells , 2007 .

[23]  Jaclyn D. Wiggins-Camacho,et al.  Mechanistic Discussion of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction at Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Nanotubes , 2011 .

[24]  Jun Shen,et al.  A review of PEM fuel cell durability: Degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies , 2008 .

[25]  Ernest Yeager,et al.  Heat-treated polyacrylonitrile-based catalysts for oxygen electroreduction , 1989 .

[26]  Wei Zhao,et al.  Production of Nitrogen-Doped Graphene by Low-Energy Nitrogen Implantation , 2012 .

[27]  Jun Liu,et al.  Electrochemical energy storage for green grid. , 2011, Chemical reviews.

[28]  Piotr Zelenay,et al.  Titanium Dioxide-supported Non-precious Metal Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalystw , 2022 .

[29]  Deyu Li,et al.  Enhanced methanol electro-oxidation activity of PtRu catalysts supported on heteroatom-doped carbon , 2008 .

[30]  D. Lozano‐Castelló,et al.  High-Loading Cobalt Oxide Coupled with Nitrogen-Doped Graphene for Oxygen Reduction in Anion-Exchange-Membrane Alkaline Fuel Cells , 2013 .

[31]  Li Li,et al.  Methanol electrooxidation on Pt particles dispersed into PANI/SWNT composite films , 2006 .

[32]  Kateryna Artyushkova,et al.  Polyaniline-derived Non-Precious Catalyst for the Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Cathode , 2008 .

[33]  D. Muller,et al.  Structurally ordered intermetallic platinum-cobalt core-shell nanoparticles with enhanced activity and stability as oxygen reduction electrocatalysts. , 2013, Nature materials.

[34]  Lauren R. Grabstanowicz,et al.  Highly Efficient Non‐Precious Metal Electrocatalysts Prepared from One‐Pot Synthesized Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks , 2014, Advanced materials.

[35]  Jaephil Cho,et al.  Nanocarbon Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction in Alkaline Media for Advanced Energy Conversion and Storage , 2014 .

[36]  Ning Li,et al.  Nitrogen-doped magnetic onion-like carbon as support for Pt particles in a hybrid cathode catalyst for fuel cells , 2010 .

[37]  Stephen A. Morin,et al.  Structure, composition, and chemical reactivity of carbon nanotubes by selective nitrogen doping , 2006 .

[38]  S. Qiao,et al.  Silver/Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Interaction and Its Effect on Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction , 2014 .

[39]  Ja-Yeon Choi,et al.  Oxygen Reduction on Graphene−Carbon Nanotube Composites Doped Sequentially with Nitrogen and Sulfur , 2014 .

[40]  Shijian Zheng,et al.  Structure-Dependent Electrocatalytic Properties of Cu2O Nanocrystals for Oxygen Reduction Reaction , 2013 .

[41]  Wei Gao,et al.  Ozonated graphene oxide film as a proton-exchange membrane. , 2014, Angewandte Chemie.

[42]  Daniel Sharon,et al.  On the challenge of developing advanced technologies for electrochemical energy storage and conversion , 2014 .

[43]  Min Gyu Kim,et al.  Integrating NiCo Alloys with Their Oxides as Efficient Bifunctional Cathode Catalysts for Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries. , 2015, Angewandte Chemie.

[44]  Jaephil Cho,et al.  Metal-organic framework-derived bamboo-like nitrogen-doped graphene tubes as an active matrix for hybrid oxygen-reduction electrocatalysts. , 2015, Small.

[45]  Lei Fu,et al.  Synthesis of Nitrogen‐Doped Graphene Using Embedded Carbon and Nitrogen Sources , 2011, Advanced materials.

[46]  M. Jaroniec,et al.  Sulfur and nitrogen dual-doped mesoporous graphene electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction with synergistically enhanced performance. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[47]  Min Gyu Kim,et al.  Metal (Ni, Co)‐Metal Oxides/Graphene Nanocomposites as Multifunctional Electrocatalysts , 2015 .

[48]  S. Ganesan,et al.  Impact of transition metal on nitrogen retention and activity of iron-nitrogen-carbon oxygen reduction catalysts. , 2014, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[49]  Piotr Zelenay,et al.  Recent advances in non-precious metal catalysis for oxygen-reduction reaction in polymer electrolyte fuel cells , 2011 .

[50]  M. Esrafili.  Nitrogen-doped (6, 0) carbon nanotubes: A comparative DFT study based on surface reactivity descriptors , 2013 .

[51]  Ruiguo Cao,et al.  Nanostructured carbon-based cathode catalysts for nonaqueous lithium-oxygen batteries. , 2014, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[52]  M. Swihart,et al.  Size-controlled large-diameter and few-walled carbon nanotube catalysts for oxygen reduction. , 2015, Nanoscale.

[53]  J. Baldwin,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene-rich catalysts derived from heteroatom polymers for oxygen reduction in nonaqueous lithium-O2 battery cathodes. , 2012, ACS nano.

[54]  Lijun Yang,et al.  A New Catalytic Site for the Electroreduction of Oxygen? , 2014 .

[55]  S. Woo,et al.  On the mechanism of enhanced oxygen reduction reaction in nitrogen-doped graphene nanoribbons. , 2011, Physical Chemistry, Chemical Physics - PCCP.

[56]  Yi Cui,et al.  Toward N-Doped Graphene via Solvothermal Synthesis , 2011 .

[57]  D. Cullen,et al.  Phosphate-Tolerant Oxygen Reduction Catalysts , 2014 .

[58]  Frédéric Jaouen,et al.  Identification of catalytic sites for oxygen reduction in iron- and nitrogen-doped graphene materials. , 2015, Nature materials.

[59]  Yongsheng Chen,et al.  Remarkable support effect of SWNTs in Pt catalyst for methanol electrooxidation , 2005 .

[60]  Kateryna Artyushkova,et al.  Synthesis-structure-performance correlation for polyaniline-Me-C non-precious metal cathode catalysts for oxygen reduction in fuel cells , 2011 .

[61]  Freek Kapteijn,et al.  Evolution of nitrogen functionalities in carbonaceous materials during pyrolysis , 1995 .

[62]  Li Li,et al.  Recent advancements in Pt and Pt-free catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. , 2015, Chemical Society reviews.

[63]  Bo-Qing Xu,et al.  Carbon nanotube supported Pt electrodes for methanol oxidation: A comparison between multi- and single-walled carbon nanotubes , 2007 .

[64]  H. Binder,et al.  Mechanism of the electrocatalytic reduction of oxygen on metal chelates , 1973 .

[65]  S. C. Tang,et al.  On Active-Site Heterogeneity in Pyrolyzed Carbon-Supported Iron Porphyrin Catalysts for the Electrochemical Reduction of Oxygen: An In Situ Mössbauer Study , 2002 .

[66]  Yong‐Sheng Hu,et al.  Lithium storage in nitrogen-rich mesoporous carbon materials , 2012 .

[67]  Yuyan Shao,et al.  Nitrogen-doped carbon nanostructures and their composites as catalytic materials for proton exchange membrane fuel cell , 2008 .

[68]  S. Qiao,et al.  Fe–N Decorated Hybrids of CNTs Grown on Hierarchically Porous Carbon for High‐Performance Oxygen Reduction , 2014, Advanced materials.

[69]  B. Popov,et al.  Development of method for synthesis of Pt-Co cathode catalysts for PEM fuel cells , 2007 .

[70]  P. Atanassov,et al.  Elucidating Oxygen Reduction Active Sites in Pyrolyzed Metal–Nitrogen Coordinated Non-Precious-Metal Electrocatalyst Systems , 2014, The journal of physical chemistry. C, Nanomaterials and interfaces.

[71]  Y. Shao-horn,et al.  Graphene-Based Non-Noble-Metal Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Acid , 2011 .

[72]  Hubert A. Gasteiger,et al.  Aspects of the Chemical Degradation of PFSA Ionomers used in PEM Fuel Cells , 2005 .

[73]  Jong-Won Lee,et al.  Development of high performance carbon composite catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction in PEM Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells , 2008 .

[74]  S. Qiao,et al.  An Fe/N co-doped graphitic carbon bulb for high-performance oxygen reduction reaction. , 2015, Chemical communications.

[75]  Juan Herranz,et al.  Iron-based cathode catalyst with enhanced power density in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. , 2011, Nature communications.

[76]  Dingshan Yu,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene/carbon nanotube hybrids: in situ formation on bifunctional catalysts and their superior electrocatalytic activity for oxygen evolution/reduction reaction. , 2014, Small.

[77]  C. N. R. Rao,et al.  Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Boron‐ and Nitrogen‐Doped Graphene , 2009, 0902.3077.

[78]  E. Rideal,et al.  Fuel Cells , 1958, Nature.

[79]  Yuanjian Zhang,et al.  Quantifying the density and utilization of active sites in non-precious metal oxygen electroreduction catalysts , 2015, Nature Communications.

[80]  Sebastian Fiechter,et al.  Nature of the Catalytic Centers of Porphyrin-Based Electrocatalysts for the ORR: A Correlation of Kinetic Current Density with the Site Density of Fe−N4 Centers , 2008 .

[81]  P. Shen,et al.  Synthesis of nitrogen-doped onion-like carbon and its use in carbon-based CoFe binary non-precious-metal catalysts for oxygen-reduction , 2011 .

[82]  Bongjin Simon Mun,et al.  Trends in electrocatalysis on extended and nanoscale Pt-bimetallic alloy surfaces. , 2007, Nature materials.

[83]  John B. Goodenough,et al.  CoMn2O4 Spinel Nanoparticles Grown on Graphene as Bifunctional Catalyst for Lithium-Air Batteries , 2011 .

[84]  L. Dai,et al.  Oxygen reduction reaction in a droplet on graphite: direct evidence that the edge is more active than the basal plane. , 2014, Angewandte Chemie.

[85]  Yanglong Hou,et al.  Facile preparation of nitrogen-doped few-layer graphene via supercritical reaction. , 2011, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[86]  Q. Wang,et al.  Phenylenediamine-based FeN(x)/C catalyst with high activity for oxygen reduction in acid medium and its active-site probing. , 2014, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[87]  S. Mukerjee,et al.  Highly active oxygen reduction non-platinum group metal electrocatalyst without direct metal–nitrogen coordination , 2015, Nature Communications.

[88]  F. Jaouen,et al.  Oxygen reduction activities compared in rotating-disk electrode and proton exchange membrane fuel cells for highly active FeNC catalysts , 2013 .

[89]  Michael O’Keeffe,et al.  The Chemistry and Applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks , 2013, Science.

[90]  Hoon T. Chung,et al.  Active and stable carbon nanotube/nanoparticle composite electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction , 2013, Nature Communications.

[91]  Bo-Qing Xu,et al.  Electro-catalytic oxidation of CO on Pt catalyst supported on carbon nanotubes pretreated with oxidative acids , 2006 .

[92]  Ping Liu,et al.  Highly stable Pt monolayer on PdAu nanoparticle electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction , 2012, Nature Communications.

[93]  P. Ajayan,et al.  Boron- and Nitrogen-Substituted Graphene Nanoribbons as Efficient Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction , 2015 .

[94]  Timothy R. Cook,et al.  Solar energy supply and storage for the legacy and nonlegacy worlds. , 2010, Chemical reviews.

[95]  Simultaneous nitrogen doping and reduction of graphene oxide. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[96]  G. Goenaga,et al.  New Approaches to Non-PGM Electrocatalysts Using Porous Framework Materials , 2010 .

[97]  Andrew G. Glen,et al.  APPL , 2001 .

[98]  S. Mukerjee,et al.  Activity descriptor identification for oxygen reduction on nonprecious electrocatalysts: linking surface science to coordination chemistry. , 2013, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[99]  Y. Liu,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene as efficient metal-free electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction in fuel cells. , 2010, ACS nano.

[100]  Ann V. Call,et al.  Cobalt imidazolate framework as precursor for oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalysts. , 2011, Chemistry.

[101]  J. Tour,et al.  Large-scale growth and characterizations of nitrogen-doped monolayer graphene sheets. , 2011, ACS nano.

[102]  Jianbo Wu,et al.  Icosahedral platinum alloy nanocrystals with enhanced electrocatalytic activities. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[103]  Deyu Li,et al.  Well-dispersed high-loading pt nanoparticles supported by shell-core nanostructured carbon for methanol electrooxidation. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[104]  Shiva Gupta,et al.  Bifunctional Perovskite Oxide Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction and Evolution in Alkaline Media. , 2016, Chemistry, an Asian journal.

[105]  J. Koenderink.  Q… , 2014, Les noms officiels des communes de Wallonie, de Bruxelles-Capitale et de la communaute germanophone.

[106]  John B. Shoven,et al.  I , Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.

[107]  Bin Wang,et al.  Recent development of non-platinum catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction , 2005 .

[108]  Xueliang Sun,et al.  Nitrogen doping effects on the structure of graphene , 2011 .

[109]  Piotr Zelenay,et al.  Nanostructured nonprecious metal catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. , 2013, Accounts of chemical research.

[110]  Mark K. Debe,et al.  Electrocatalyst approaches and challenges for automotive fuel cells , 2012, Nature.

[111]  M. Jaroniec,et al.  Heteroatom-Doped Graphene-Based Materials for Energy-Relevant Electrocatalytic Processes , 2015 .

[112]  Markus Antonietti,et al.  Mesoporous nitrogen-doped carbon for the electrocatalytic synthesis of hydrogen peroxide. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[113]  W. Schuhmann,et al.  On the Role of Metals in Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction. , 2015, Angewandte Chemie.

[114]  J. Baek,et al.  Facile, scalable synthesis of edge-halogenated graphene nanoplatelets as efficient metal-free eletrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction , 2013, Scientific Reports.

[115]  B. Dunn,et al.  Electrical Energy Storage for the Grid: A Battery of Choices , 2011, Science.

[116]  Liping Huang,et al.  Low temperature growth of highly nitrogen-doped single crystal graphene arrays by chemical vapor deposition. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[117]  Gang Wu,et al.  Stability of iron species in heat-treated polyaniline–iron–carbon polymer electrolyte fuel cell cathode catalysts , 2013 .

[118]  Ting Yu,et al.  Pyridinic N doped graphene: synthesis, electronic structure, and electrocatalytic property , 2011 .

[119]  Gui Yu,et al.  Synthesis of N-doped graphene by chemical vapor deposition and its electrical properties. , 2009, Nano letters.

[120]  K. Artyushkova,et al.  Nano-structured non-platinum catalysts for automotive fuel cell application , 2015 .

[121]  U. Ozkan,et al.  Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Nanostructures as Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts in Acidic Media: An Overview , 2014, Catalysis Letters.

[122]  W. Bennett,et al.  Hierarchically porous graphene as a lithium-air battery electrode. , 2011, Nano letters.

[123]  R. Jasinski,et al.  A New Fuel Cell Cathode Catalyst , 1964, Nature.

[124]  A. Toland,et al.  Carbon , 2018, Field to Palette.

[125]  F. Du,et al.  Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Nanotube Arrays with High Electrocatalytic Activity for Oxygen Reduction , 2009, Science.

[126]  J. Lahaye,et al.  Porous structure and surface chemistry of nitrogen containing carbons from polymers , 1999 .

[127]  Zhichuan J. Xu,et al.  Ultrathin MnO(2) nanoflakes as efficient catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. , 2014, Chemical communications.

[128]  J. Miyawaki,et al.  Preparation of nitrogen-doped graphene sheets by a combined chemical and hydrothermal reduction of graphene oxide. , 2010, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[129]  Lei Zhang,et al.  Nanostructured Pt-alloy electrocatalysts for PEM fuel cell oxygen reduction reaction. , 2010, Chemical Society reviews.

[130]  Hao Gong,et al.  Exploration of the active center structure of nitrogen-doped graphene-based catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction , 2012 .

[131]  P. Shen,et al.  Tungsten carbide as supports for Pt electrocatalysts with improved CO tolerance in methanol oxidatio , 2011 .

[132]  Willett Kempton,et al.  Cost-minimized combinations of wind power, solar power and electrochemical storage, powering the grid up to 99.9% of the time , 2013 .

[133]  Wei Gao,et al.  New insights into the structure and reduction of graphite oxide. , 2009, Nature chemistry.

[134]  Qiao Liu,et al.  Advanced oxygen reduction electrocatalyst based on nitrogen-doped graphene derived from edible sugar and urea. , 2013, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[135]  H. Fu,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene with high nitrogen level via a one-step hydrothermal reaction of graphene oxide with urea for superior capacitive energy storage , 2012 .

[136]  Y. Okamoto.  First-principles molecular dynamics simulation of O2 reduction on nitrogen-doped carbon , 2009 .

[137]  Alfred B. Anderson,et al.  O2 reduction on graphite and nitrogen-doped graphite: experiment and theory. , 2006, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[138]  Yong Wang,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene and its electrochemical applications , 2010 .

[139]  Svitlana Pylypenko,et al.  Non-platinum oxygen reduction electrocatalysts based on pyrolyzed transition metal macrocycles , 2008 .

[140]  Deyu Li,et al.  Carbon-supported Co1.67Te2 nanoparticles as electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline electrolyte , 2009 .

[141]  Piotr Zelenay,et al.  Structure of Fe–Nx–C Defects in Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts from First-Principles Modeling , 2014 .

[142]  L. Christophorou.  Science , 2018, Emerging Dynamics: Science, Energy, Society and Values.

[143]  Yanglong Hou,et al.  Hybrid of Iron Nitride and Nitrogen‐Doped Graphene Aerogel as Synergistic Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction , 2014 .

[144]  Gang Wu,et al.  Role of two carbon phases in oxygen reduction reaction on the Co–PPy–C catalyst , 2014 .

[145]  G. Hu,et al.  Formation of active sites for oxygen reduction reactions by transformation of nitrogen functionalities in nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes. , 2012, ACS nano.

[146]  B. Popov,et al.  Highly stable Pt and PtPd hybrid catalysts supported on a nitrogen-modified carbon composite for fuel cell application ☆ , 2010 .

[147]  Bin Zhang,et al.  One-step synthesis of Mn3O4/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites for oxygen reduction in nonaqueous Li-O2 batteries. , 2013, Chemical communications.

[148]  M. Oehzelt,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene: efficient growth, structure, and electronic properties. , 2011, Nano letters.

[149]  Hui Li,et al.  Carbon-supported Pt-based alloy electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: particle size, shape, and composition manipulation and their impact to activity. , 2015, Chemical reviews.

[150]  Xueliang Sun,et al.  Nitrogen-doped graphene nanosheets as cathode materials with excellent electrocatalytic activity for high capacity lithium-oxygen batteries , 2012 .

[151]  Ning Li,et al.  Anodically electrodeposited Co+Ni mixed oxide electrode: preparation and electrocatalytic activity for oxygen evolution in alkaline media , 2004 .

[152]  Edward F. Holby,et al.  Experimental Observation of Redox-Induced Fe-N Switching Behavior as a Determinant Role for Oxygen Reduction Activity. , 2015, ACS nano.

[153]  Y. Ishikawa,et al.  In Search of the Active Site in Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Nanotube Electrodes for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction , 2010 .

[154]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[155]  Jong-Won Lee,et al.  Nitrogen-modified carbon-based catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2009 .

[156]  Yufan Zhang,et al.  Confined nanospace synthesis of less aggregated and porous nitrogen-doped graphene as metal-free electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline solution. , 2014, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[157]  K. Ariga,et al.  Nanoporous carbons through direct carbonization of a zeolitic imidazolate framework for supercapacitor electrodes. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[158]  Qijun Sun,et al.  Phosphorus-doped porous carbons as efficient electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction , 2013 .

[159]  Kateryna Artyushkova,et al.  Performance Durability of Polyaniline-derived Non-precious Cathode Catalysts , 2009 .

[160]  Gang Wu,et al.  Electrooxidations of ethanol, acetaldehyde and acetic acid using PtRuSn/C catalysts prepared by modified alcohol-reduction process , 2007 .

[161]  Tomoki Akita,et al.  From metal-organic framework to nanoporous carbon: toward a very high surface area and hydrogen uptake. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[162]  Andrew Dicks,et al.  Non precious metal catalysts for the PEM fuel cell cathode , 2012 .

[163]  Liming Dai,et al.  Heteroatom-Doped Graphitic Carbon Catalysts for Efficient Electrocatalysis of Oxygen Reduction Reaction , 2015 .

[164]  Dan Zhao,et al.  Iron imidazolate framework as precursor for electrocatalysts in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2012 .

[165]  Gang Wu,et al.  High-Performance Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Derived from Polyaniline, Iron, and Cobalt , 2011, Science.

[166]  Liangti Qu,et al.  A versatile, ultralight, nitrogen-doped graphene framework. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[167]  Jaephil Cho,et al.  Graphene/Graphene‐Tube Nanocomposites Templated from Cage‐Containing Metal‐Organic Frameworks for Oxygen Reduction in Li–O2 Batteries , 2014, Advanced materials.

[168]  M. Balasubramanian,et al.  Fe/N/C composite in Li-O2 battery: studies of catalytic structure and activity toward oxygen evolution reaction. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[169]  R. Rosenfeld.  Nature , 2009, Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery.

[170]  Hsing-lin Wang,et al.  A carbon-nanotube-supported graphene-rich non-precious metal oxygen reduction catalyst with enhanced performance durability. , 2013, Chemical communications.

[171]  K. Artyushkova,et al.  Multitechnique Characterization of a Polyaniline–Iron–Carbon Oxygen Reduction Catalyst , 2012 .

[172]  Hansung Kim,et al.  The role of transition metals in non-precious nitrogen-modified carbon-based electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction , 2012 .

[173]  Younan Xia,et al.  Pd-Pt Bimetallic Nanodendrites with High Activity for Oxygen Reduction , 2009, Science.

[174]  Ulrich Eberle,et al.  Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview , 2010 .

[175]  Geping Yin,et al.  Understanding and Approaches for the Durability Issues of Pt-Based Catalysts for PEM Fuel Cell , 2007 .

[176]  O. Urakawa,et al.  Small - , 2007 .

[177]  Thomas J. Schmidt,et al.  Electrocatalysis for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells: Recent Achievements and Future Challenges , 2012 .

[178]  R. Kothandaraman,et al.  Nitrogen Precursor Effects in Iron-Nitrogen-Carbon Oxygen Reduction Catalysts , 2011 .