Driving rural energy access: a second-life application for electric-vehicle batteries

Building rural energy infrastructure in developing countries remains a significant financial, policy and technological challenge. The growth of the electric vehicle (EV) industry will rapidly expand the resource of partially degraded, ‘retired’, but still usable batteries in 2016 and beyond. These batteries can become the storage hubs for community-scale grids in the developing world. We model the resource and performance potential and the technological and economic aspects of the utilization of retired EV batteries in rural and decentralized mini- and micro-grids. We develop and explore four economic scenarios across three battery chemistries to examine the impacts on transport and recycling logistics. We find that EVs sold through 2020 will produce 120–549 GWh in retired storage potential by 2028. Outlining two use scenarios for decentralized systems, we discuss the possible impacts on global electrification rates. We find that used EV batteries can provide a cost-effective and lower environmental impact alternative to existing lead-acid storage systems in these applications.

[1]  S. Prunty,et al.  Why 159°?: a story about the dropping of the Hiroshima atom bomb , 2015 .

[2]  Callie W. Babbitt,et al.  Economies of scale for future lithium-ion battery recycling infrastructure , 2014 .

[3]  Thomas H. Bradley,et al.  Review of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and electric vehicle market modeling Studies , 2013 .

[4]  Jianqiu Li,et al.  A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles , 2013 .

[5]  Matthew B. Pinson,et al.  Theory of SEI Formation in Rechargeable Batteries: Capacity Fade, Accelerated Aging and Lifetime Prediction , 2012, 1210.3672.

[6]  Naeemullah,et al.  Exposures of lead to adolescent workers in battery recycling workshops and surrounding communities , 2012, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

[7]  Qingsong Wang,et al.  Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery , 2012 .

[8]  Fa-Hwa Shieh,et al.  Second Use of Retired Lithium-ion Battery Packs from Electric Vehicles: Technological Challenges, Cost Analysis and Optimal Business Model , 2012, 2012 International Symposium on Computer, Consumer and Control.

[9]  Jeremy Neubauer,et al.  A Techno-Economic Analysis of PEV Battery Second Use: Repurposed-Battery Selling Price and Commercial and Industrial End-User Value , 2012 .

[10]  Chris Marnay,et al.  An Economic Analysis of Used Electric Vehicle Batteries Integrated Into Commercial Building Microgrids , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid.

[11]  Jeremy Neubauer,et al.  The ability of battery second use strategies to impact plug-in electric vehicle prices and serve uti , 2011 .

[12]  G. Keoleian,et al.  Global Lithium Availability , 2011 .

[13]  P. Pillay,et al.  Design and Analysis of an Electromechanical Battery for Rural Electrification in Sub-Saharan Africa , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.

[14]  Daniel M. Kammen,et al.  The delivery of low-cost, low-carbon rural energy services , 2011 .

[15]  T. Wanger.  The Lithium future—resources, recycling, and the environment , 2011 .

[16]  Anders Hammer Strømman,et al.  Life cycle environmental assessment of lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[17]  Daniel M. Kammen,et al.  The Energy-Poverty-Climate Nexus , 2010, Science.

[18]  M. Zackrisson,et al.  Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles – Critical issues , 2010 .

[19]  L. Gaines,et al.  A review of battery life-cycle analysis : state of knowledge and critical needs. , 2010 .

[20]  Tony Markel,et al.  Design of Electric Drive Vehicle Batteries for Long Life and Low Cost: Robustness to Geographic and Consumer-Usage Variation (Presentation) , 2010 .

[21]  Jay F. Whitacre,et al.  The economics of using plug-in hybrid electric vehicle battery packs for grid storage , 2010 .

[22]  R. Martínez-Béjar,et al.  Life cycle assessment study of a 4.2 kWp stand-alone photovoltaic system , 2009 .

[23]  Shaoli Feng,et al.  Lead-acid battery use in the development of renewable energy systems in China , 2009 .

[24]  R. Bertollini,et al.  Mass Lead Intoxication from Informal Used Lead-Acid Battery Recycling in Dakar, Senegal , 2009, Environmental health perspectives.

[25]  K. C. Divya,et al.  Battery Energy Storage Technology for power systems-An overview , 2009 .

[26]  Joeri Van Mierlo,et al.  Comparison of the Environmental Impact of 5 Electric Vehicle Battery technologies using LCA. , 2009 .

[27]  H. Thomas,et al.  A review of processes and technologies for the recycling of lithium-ion secondary batteries , 2008 .

[28]  Elisabeth Lemaire-Potteau,et al.  ABLE project: Development of an advanced lead-acid storage system for autonomous PV installations , 2006 .

[29]  D. Barnes,et al.  PRODUCTIVE USES OF ENERGY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT , 2005 .

[30]  John Lippert,et al.  Technical and Economic Feasibility of Applying Used EV Batteries in Stationary Applications , 2003 .

[31]  Florence Ansart,et al.  Advances in the recovering of spent lithium battery compounds , 2002 .

[32]  M. Armand,et al.  Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries , 2001, Nature.

[33]  P. V. Beukering,et al.  Empirical Evidence on Recycling and Trade of Paper and Lead in Developed and Developing Countries , 2001 .

[34]  M. Lain,et al.  Recycling of lithium ion cells and batteries , 2001 .

[35]  D. Spiers,et al.  Limits to battery lifetime in photovoltaic applications , 1996 .

[36]  J. M. Huacuz,et al.  Field performance of lead-acid batteries in photovoltaic rural electrification kits , 1995 .

[37]  Lam Van Dongen,et al.  ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN THE UNITED STATES , 1982 .

[38]  Subhes C. Bhattacharyya,et al.  Rural electrification through decentralised off-grid systems in developing countries. , 2013 .

[39]  V. Kishore,et al.  Technology Choices for Off-Grid Electrification , 2013 .

[40]  Aie,et al.  World Energy Outlook 2013 , 2013 .

[41]  Electricity Storage and Renewables for Island Power: A Guide for Decision Makers , 2012 .