Animal rights and human morality

individual human subjects of research, and to provide a framework within which medical research could flourish. The essays begin with a thoughtprovoking philosophical discussion by Dr K Boyd. His examination ofDr KW M Fulford's 'four principles' for research -knowledge, necessity, benefit and consent is particularly useful, as these principles can provide a theoretical framework for those whose duty it is to review research protocols. This essay is followed by an informative discussion of the role of the World Health Organisation by Dr M N G Dukes, which has been in a fairly strong and effective position in 'persuading, nudging, catalysing the development of consensus and generally guiding the world into a proper pattern of behaviour on health issues'. Dr P Bennett then provides an excellent summary of the key concems of the clinical investigator, which could also serve as a checklist for research ethics committees. Dr N P Maurice, writing from the perspective of the pharmaceutical industry, describes the complexity of European drug trials because of different attitudes to the way human research should be carried out. He discusses the development of 'good clinical practice' and the rise in the 1960s of the disciplines of clinical pharmacology and pharmaceutical medicine. Dr S L Nightingale of the United States Food and Drug Administration explains in his essay the details of the regulatory system governing clinical research on humans in the United States. This regulatory system is highly developed, with a comprehensive review structure (which includes monitoring standards of review) by institutional review boards (IRBs). J Dangoumau then discusses the responsibilities of research ethics committees in France, where recent legislation has established local Consultative Committees for the Protection of Individuals. Mr B Wijnberg offers a comparative overview of legislation in different EEC countries regarding medical research on humans, and of aspects of international and EEC law which impinge on these experiments. He concludes that there is room for improvement. Dr F Garcia-Alonso and Dr M A Serrano-Castro describe clinical research and its regulation in Spain. This is followed by a discussion of the role of the European Ethical Review Committee by its chairman, Dr W M Rosinga. Finally, Dr Fernand Sauer gives an overview of the ethical aspects of EEC pharmaceutical legislation. In his concluding remarks the editor notes that there is diversity between countries of the EEC, because of cultural and legal differences. He also points out that there are important points of unity; for example, the almost universal recognition of the Declaration of Helsinki of the World Medical Association. The editor leaves us with a direction: 'to stimulate the establishment of ethical review committees throughout the EEC' and to provide a uniform standard of review across the community. The symposium must have provided a very useful and informative exchange of views and perspectives, reflected to a certain extent in the essays. Arguably the essays do not examine each topic in enough depth; nonetheless, they certainly lay foundations for further discussion and collaboration between countries of the EEC.