A procedure for multiple-pulse maximum permissible exposure determination under the Z136.1-2000 American National Standard for Safe Use of Lasers

The current national consensus standard for laser safety in the United States is the American National Standard for Safe Use of Lasers (ANSI Z136.1). Over the past few years, a comprehensive rewrite of this standard has been conducted. The updated version of the standard (Z136.1-2000) incorporates a wealth of new bioeffects data and establishes a number of new maximum permissible exposure (MPE) limits for laser safety. The updated standard also includes new procedures for the computation of MPE values, which must be understood by health physicists, laser safety officers, and others in the field of occupational safety. Here we present the first in a series of tutorial articles to clarify laser safety analysis procedures under this new standard. This article deals with the proper application of three rules for determining the appropriate MPE values for repetitively pulsed lasers or repeated exposures from laser beams.

[1]  R J Rockwell,et al.  Optical radiation hazards of laser welding processes. Part II: CO2 laser. , 1989, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[2]  Michael A. Domin.  Ignition potential of surgical appliances and materials , 1992 .

[3]  Hansjoerg Albrecht,et al.  Investigation of the distribution of aerosols and VOC in plume produced during laser treatment under OR conditions , 1996, European Conference on Biomedical Optics.

[4]  Marcus D. Benedetto,et al.  Laser plume hazards in the healthcare environment , 1993, Photonics West - Lasers and Applications in Science and Engineering.

[5]  R. S. Bernstein,et al.  Hazard-evaluation and technical-assistance report No. HETA-78-101-109, Occidental Oil Shale, Incorporated, Logan Wash, Colorado, Mine No. 0502248 , 1980 .

[6]  David H. Sliney,et al.  INTERACTION MECHANISMS OF LASER RADIATION WITH OCULAR TISSUES. , 1984 .

[7]  Rickard S. Hughes.  Fire in the hole: An endotracheal tube fire , 2003 .

[8]  S W Newsom,et al.  Possible hazards from irradiation with the carbon dioxide laser , 1986, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[9]  R W Faaland,et al.  Viable bacteriophage in CO2 laser plume: Aerodynamic size distribution , 1993, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[10]  Hans-Juergen Weigmann,et al.  Permanent gases and highly volatile organic compounds in laser plume , 1996, European Conference on Biomedical Optics.

[11]  Dan K. Thomas.  Often overlooked electrical hazards common in many lasers , 1992 .

[12]  J M Kokosa,et al.  Probing plume protection problems in the health care environment. , 1992, Journal of laser applications.

[13]  David H. Sliney,et al.  Laser Protective Eyewear , 1974 .

[14]  S H Rosenbaum,et al.  Laser-induced endotracheal tube fire. , 1981, Anesthesiology.

[15]  A. Kestenbaum,et al.  Laser system design for safety in manufacturing , 1990 .

[16]  T E Johnson,et al.  Proposed maximum permissible exposure limits for ultrashort laser pulses. , 1999, Health physics.

[17]  J. A. Hathaway,et al.  Ocular medical surveillance on microwave and laser workers. , 1977, Journal of occupational medicine. : official publication of the Industrial Medical Association.

[18]  J. J. Vos,et al.  A theory of retinal burns. , 1962, The Bulletin of mathematical biophysics.

[19]  Maila Hietanen,et al.  Scattered and plasma-related optical radiations associated with industrial laser processes , 1990 .

[20]  R L Miller,et al.  Characteristics of blood-containing aerosols generated by common powered dental instruments. , 1995, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[21]  W J Marshall,et al.  Hazardous ranges of laser beams and their reflections from targets. , 1986, Applied optics.

[22]  L Goldman,et al.  Laser laboratory design and personnel protection from high energy lasers. , 1966, Journal of chemical education.

[23]  A I Friedmann.  The ophthalmic screening of laser workers. , 1978, The Annals of occupational hygiene.

[24]  W J Marshall.  Laser reflections from relatively flat specular surfaces. , 1989, Health physics.

[25]  J. Felton,et al.  Evaluation of laser dye mutagenicity using the Ames/Salmonella microsome test. , 1985, Environmental mutagenesis.

[26]  R. James RockwellJr..  Utilization of the nominal hazard zone in control measure selection , 1990 .

[27]  J. Powell,et al.  LASER CUTTING OF STEELS: A physical and chemical analysis of the particles ejected during cutting. Part II , 1993 .

[28]  Richard P. Felten.  Summary of Laser Plume Effects and Safety Session , 1989 .

[29]  George D. Tsakiris,et al.  X-ray production by irradiation of solid targets with sub-picosecond excimer laser pulses , 1988 .

[30]  R. Anderson,et al.  Cumulative effects of repeated subthreshold doses of ultraviolet radiation. , 1981, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[31]  J C van der Leun.  Interactions of different wavelengths in effects of UV radiation on skin. , 1987, Photo-dermatology.

[32]  M Hietanen,et al.  Evaluation of hazards in CO2 laser welding and related processes. , 1992, The Annals of occupational hygiene.

[33]  B. Steinberg,et al.  Is papillomavirus detectable in the plume of laser-treated laryngeal papilloma? , 1990, Archives of otolaryngology--head & neck surgery.

[34]  D H Sliney,et al.  Intraocular lens damage from Nd:YAG laser pulses focused in the vitreous Part II: Mode‐locked lasers , 1988, Journal of cataract and refractive surgery.

[35]  Sheldon A. Zimmerman,et al.  Comparison of divergence measurement techniques for laser light show application , 1997 .

[36]  R B Bedell,et al.  Retina: Ultrastructural Alterations Produced by Extremely Low Levels of Coherent Radiation , 1972, Science.

[37]  S Fine,et al.  Melanin granule models for pulsed laser induced retinal injury. , 1968, Applied optics.

[38]  Yung-Ho Chuang,et al.  Study of x-ray emission from picosecond laser-plasma interaction , 1991, Photonics West - Lasers and Applications in Science and Engineering.

[39]  H. Benoit,et al.  Installation of a Commercial Excimer Laser in the Operating Room , 1989 .

[40]  Patricia A. HartwigR.N..  Medical laser safety programs: Management and training , 1990 .

[41]  Charles F. Dalziel,et al.  Electric shock hazard , 1972, IEEE Spectrum.

[42]  Gordon Miller.  Industrial hygiene concerns of laser dyes , 1990 .

[43]  J. Guardiola Soler,et al.  The characterization of aerosols generated during the cutting of metallic materials with lasers , 1998 .

[44]  L. Freitag,et al.  Laser smoke effect on the bronchial system , 1987, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[45]  Fr.-W. Bach,et al.  Aerosol generation during cutting of various materials with plasma, laser and consumable electrode , 1988 .

[46]  C. Melandri,et al.  Characterization of aerosols produced in cutting steel components and concrete structures by means of a laser beam , 1986 .

[47]  M. V. van Gemert,et al.  Temperature behaviour of a model port-wine stain during argon laser coagulation. , 1982, Physics in medicine and biology.

[48]  Kenneth R. TroutmanCIH.  Ventilation system design for industrial laser operation , 1990 .

[49]  S L Jacques,et al.  Putative photoacoustic damage in skin induced by pulsed ArF excimer laser. , 1988, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[50]  Arthur G. Varanelli.  Electrical hazards associated with lasers , 1992 .

[51]  R. Anderson,et al.  The optics of human skin. , 1981, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[52]  D H Sliney,et al.  Evaluating health hazards from military lasers. , 1970, JAMA.

[53]  Martin Dahmen,et al.  Workplace exposure during laser machining , 1997 .

[54]  B A Rockwell,et al.  Thresholds for visible lesions in the primate eye produced by ultrashort near-infrared laser pulses. , 1999, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[55]  M N Ediger,et al.  In vitro production of viable bacteriophage in a laser plume , 1989, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[56]  D H Sliney,et al.  Semitransparent curtains for control of optical radiation hazards. , 1981, Applied optics.

[57]  K Willeke,et al.  Penetration of airborne microorganisms through a surgical mask and a dust/mist respirator. , 1996, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[58]  D H Sliney,et al.  Retinal image motion during deliberate fixation: implications to laser safety for long duration viewing. , 2000, Health physics.

[59]  Myron L. Wolbarsht,et al.  Ocular hazards from lasers and other optical sources , 1970 .

[60]  P. Williamson,et al.  Presence of human immunodeficiency virus DNA in laser smoke , 1991, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[61]  A. Lehmann,et al.  Biological effects of ultraviolet radiation , 1979, Nature.

[62]  M L Wolbarsht,et al.  Thermal model for retinal damage induced by pulsed lasers. , 1968, Aerospace medicine.

[63]  C. P. Skillern.  Management of a laser safety program in the research environment , 1990 .

[64]  Charles R. Yeh.  New capture and collection technology - Assures removal of surgical smoke , 1997 .

[65]  David H. Sliney,et al.  Safety of Medical Excimer Lasers with an Emphasis on Compressed Gases , 1991 .

[66]  F. Docchio,et al.  Shielding properties of laser-induced plasmas in ocular media irradiated by single Nd:YAG pulses of different durations. , 1988, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[67]  M Sosis.  Polyvinylchloride endotracheal tubes are hazardous for CO2 laser surgery. , 1988, Anesthesiology.

[68]  David H. Sliney,et al.  The Protective Characteristics of Polycarbonate Lenses Against CO2 Laser Radiation , 1993 .

[69]  A Kumar,et al.  Prevention of fire hazard during laser microsurgery. , 1981, Anesthesiology.

[70]  Stephanie L. Matchette,et al.  In vitro production of viable bacteriophage in carbon dioxide and argon laser plumes , 1991, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[71]  David Y. H. Pui,et al.  PERFORMANCE OF HEPA AND ULPA FILTERS. , 1985 .

[72]  Lothar W. Weber.  Spreading of infectious materials from the laser interaction zone: viruses and bacteria , 1996, European Conference on Biomedical Optics.

[73]  Thomas H. Meier,et al.  Investigations of pulsed laser tissue ablation by short-time exposure video recording and image processing , 1996, European Conference on Biomedical Optics.

[74]  David H. Sliney,et al.  Historical development of the ANSI laser safety standard , 1991 .

[75]  A. Ferenczy,et al.  Human papillomavirus DNA in CO2 laser‐generated plume of smoke and its consequences to the surgeon , 1990, Obstetrics and gynecology.

[76]  Charles F. Dalziel,et al.  Effects of Electric Shock on Man , 1956 .

[77]  Ralph H. Lee.  Electrical safety in industrial plants , 1971, IEEE Spectrum.

[78]  H. Haferkamp,et al.  Air contaminants generated during laser processing of organic materials and protective measures , 1997 .

[79]  Fritz Klocke,et al.  Environmental and Safety Aspects of Electrophysical and Electrochemical Processes , 1996 .

[80]  C. Hirshman,et al.  Ignition of an endotracheal tube during laser microsurgery. , 1980, Anesthesiology.

[81]  J. Gravenstein,et al.  The helium protocol for laryngotracheal operations with CO2 laser: a retrospective review of 523 cases. , 1988, Anesthesiology.

[82]  F Hillenkamp,et al.  Theoretical investigations of laser thermal retinal injury. , 1985, Health physics.

[83]  Thomas H. Meier,et al.  Concepts of risk assesment of complex chemical mixtures in laser pyrolysis fumes , 1996, European Conference on Biomedical Optics.

[84]  S Fine,et al.  Pathology of Internal Viscera Following Laser Irradiation , 1969, The American journal of the medical sciences.

[85]  C. Eugene Moss.  Control measures necessary for limiting occupational exposures in laser surgical procedures , 1990 .

[86]  C. Eugene Moss,et al.  Laser generated air contaminants released during laser cutting of fabrics and polymers , 1997 .

[87]  Kenneth L. Cashdollar,et al.  Laser Ignition Of Flammable Gas , 1999 .

[88]  C. Eugene Moss,et al.  Airborne emissions produced by the interaction of a carbon dioxide laser with glass, metals, and plastics , 1990 .

[89]  P O Byrne,et al.  Carbon dioxide laser irradiation of bacterial targets in vitro. , 1987, The Journal of hospital infection.

[90]  Rocco V. Lobraico,et al.  Laser Safety in Health Care Facilities , 1992 .

[91]  Wordie H. Parr.  SKIN LESION THRESHOLD VALUES FOR LASER RADIATION AS COMPARED WITH SAFETY STANDARDS , 1969 .

[92]  R. James Rockwell.  Laser Accidents: Are They All Reported and What Can Be Learned from Them? , 1989 .

[93]  M S Baggish,et al.  Protection of the rat lung from the harmful effects of laser smoke , 1988, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[94]  Walter R. Lempert,et al.  Laser ignition of ball powder (nitrocellulose base) , 1994, Photonics West - Lasers and Applications in Science and Engineering.

[95]  Carol CaldwellP.E..  Laser fire protection , 1992 .

[96]  Kenneth R. TroutmanCIH,et al.  Case studies of laser generated air pollution , 1992 .

[97]  H. Haferkamp,et al.  Hazardous emissions: characterization of CO2 laser material processing , 1992 .

[98]  Hansjoerg Albrecht,et al.  Evaluation of potential health hazards caused by laser and rf surgery , 1996, European Conference on Biomedical Optics.

[99]  Benjamin A. Rockwell,et al.  A procedure for laser hazard classification under the Z136.1-2000 American National Standard for Safe Use of Lasers , 2002 .

[100]  R J Rockwell,et al.  Optical radiation hazards of laser welding processes. Part 1: Neodymium-YAG laser. , 1983, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[101]  A. J. Allnutt.  Safety with Lasers and other Optical Sources , 1981 .

[102]  Wolfgang Wöllmer.  Protection measures against the influences of laser plume in medical applications , 1997 .

[103]  Richard J. Coyle,et al.  Safe laser system design for production , 1995 .

[104]  Charles E. Albright,et al.  CO2 shielding gas effects in laser welding mild steel , 1994 .

[105]  Rocco V. Lobraico,et al.  A Retrospective Study on the Hazards of the Carbon Dioxide Laser Plume , 1988 .

[106]  Joseph K. Kwan.  Toxicological characterization of chemicals produced from laser irradiation of graphite composite materials , 1990 .

[107]  James F. Smith.  Class 2 laser safety training programs , 1990 .

[108]  F E Carroll.  Generation of “soft x‐rays” by using the free electron laser as a proposed means of diagnosing and treating breast cancer , 1991, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[109]  Benjamin A. Rockwell,et al.  Update on ANSI Z136.1 , 1999 .

[110]  H G Milstein.  A simple solution to decreasing the hazards of carbon dioxide laser plume in the operating room. , 1989, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[111]  J Colvin.  Eye protection. , 1979, Australian dental journal.

[112]  Douglas E. Ott,et al.  Proposal for a standard for laser plume filter technology , 1994 .

[113]  D. J. Doyle,et al.  Laser processing of Kevlar: Hazardous chemical by products , 1986 .

[114]  Mitchel B. Sosis,et al.  Comparison of CO2 laser ignition of the Xomed, plastic and rubber tracheal tubes , 1992 .

[115]  D Courant,et al.  Retinal damage thresholds from single-pulse laser exposures in the visible spectrum. , 1989, Health physics.

[116]  James G. Fujimoto,et al.  Femtosecond laser-tissue interactions: Retinal injury studies , 1987 .

[117]  Donald W. Stilson,et al.  BIOMEDICAL EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. PART I. ULTRAVIOLET , 1960 .

[118]  L M Dzubow,et al.  Infectious papillomavirus in the vapor of warts treated with carbon dioxide laser or electrocoagulation: detection and protection. , 1989, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[119]  A G Pashayan,et al.  Airway fires during surgery with the carbon dioxide laser. , 1989, Anesthesiology.

[120]  Katsuo Itoh,et al.  Environmental protection in laser processing in Japan , 1992 .

[121]  R. Clay,et al.  Microbiologic activity in laser resurfacing plume and debris , 1998, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[122]  W J Marshall.  Hazard analysis on gaussian shaped laser beams. , 1980, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[123]  J. Patrick Reilly,et al.  Applied Bioelectricity: From Electrical Stimulation to Electropathology , 1998 .

[124]  Teresa A. Seitz,et al.  RF-excited carbon dioxide lasers: Concerns of RF occupational exposures , 1990 .

[125]  R. Timothy Hitchcock,et al.  Radio-Frequency and ELF Electromagnetic Energies: A Handbook for Health Professionals , 1994 .

[126]  C E Moss,et al.  Evaluation of a smoke evacuator used for laser surgery , 1989, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[127]  David H. Sliney,et al.  Safety Programs and Formal Training , 1980 .

[128]  B. Ziegler,et al.  Generation of infectious retrovirus aerosol through medical laser irradiation , 1998, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[129]  J. Parrish,et al.  Ultrastructure: effects of melanin pigment on target specificity using a pulsed dye laser (577 nm). , 1987, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[130]  J. Marshall,et al.  An ultrastructural study of corneal incisions induced by an excimer laser at 193 nm. , 1985, Ophthalmology.

[131]  C. Eugene Moss,et al.  Optical radiation assessment of laser welding , 1982 .

[132]  John M. Kokosa.  Hazardous chemicals produced by laser materials processing , 1992 .

[133]  Daryl J. Doyle.  Spectroscopic evaluation of toxic by-products produced during industrial laser processing , 1990 .

[134]  American Conference Of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 1998 Ventilation A O , 2019 .

[135]  Marvin P. Fried,et al.  Laser resistant stainless steel endotracheal tube: Experimental and clinical evaluation , 1991, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[136]  Robert K. Garner.  Research, development and future of filtration methods , 1992 .

[137]  Edwin S Beatrice,et al.  Ocular Effects of Holmium (2.06 μm) and Erbium (1.54 μm) Laser Radiation , 1981 .

[138]  Frank E. Cheney,et al.  Medical Management of Combat Laser Eye Injuries , 1988 .

[139]  A. Vassiliadis,et al.  Ocular Damage from Laser Radiation , 1971 .

[140]  R. Dhillon,et al.  For the safe use of lasers , 1989 .

[141]  W J Marshall,et al.  Laser hazard evaluation method for middle infrared laser systems. , 1996, Journal of laser applications.

[142]  A. J. StreifelMPH,et al.  Evaluation of methods for limiting exposure to laser plume , 1992 .

[143]  John Eugene,et al.  Chemical composition of laser-tissue interaction smoke plume , 1988 .

[144]  J. Patrick Reilly,et al.  Individual Differences in Sensitivity to Transient Electrocutaneous Stimulation , 1986, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[145]  D. Sliney,et al.  Safety with Lasers and Other Optical Sources , 1980, Springer US.

[146]  J. Taboada,et al.  Response of the corneal epithelium to KrF excimer laser pulses. , 1981, Health physics.

[147]  Todd J. Rockstroh,et al.  Spectroscopic studies of plasma during cw laser materials interaction , 1987 .

[148]  Wesley J. Marshall.  Determining source size from diode laser systems , 2002 .

[149]  James R. Johnson.  Safety audits of industrial laser facilities , 1990 .

[150]  W G Reeves,et al.  Smoke from laser surgery: Is there a health hazard? , 1987, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[151]  S. Thomas,et al.  Ocular effects of pulsed Nd laser radiation: variation of threshold with pulsewidth. , 1985, Health physics.

[152]  K. Levsen,et al.  Aerosol formation during laser cutting of fibre reinforced plastics , 1989 .

[153]  W S Sawchuk,et al.  Infectious potential of aerosolized particles. , 1989, Archives of dermatology.

[154]  R. Stjernholm,et al.  Analysis of plume emissions after papovavirus irradiation with the carbon dioxide laser. , 1982, The Journal of reproductive medicine.

[155]  William T. Ham,et al.  The effect of threshold macular lesions and subthreshold macular exposures on visual acuity in the Rhesus monkey. , 1970, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[156]  M. Dahmen,et al.  Degradation of optical components in laser machines for manufacturing , 1995, Laser Damage.

[157]  Mitsuo Maeda,et al.  STIMULATED EMISSION FROM 19 POLYMETHINE DYES‐LASER ACTION OVER THE CONTINUOUS RANGE 710–1060 mμ , 1968 .

[158]  David Engel.  Laser generated metal dust explosive potential , 1992 .

[159]  Harold A. Mueller,et al.  The Photopathology and Nature of the Blue Light and Near-UV Retinal Lesions Produced by Lasers and Other Optical Sources , 1989 .

[160]  B A Rockwell,et al.  Pathology of macular lesions from subnanosecond pulses of visible laser energy. , 1997, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[161]  Jennifer L. Topmiller,et al.  Factors affecting emission collection by surgical smoke evacuators , 1990, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[162]  W P Roach,et al.  Visible retinal lesions from ultrashort laser pulses in the primate eye. , 1995, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[163]  R Linsker,et al.  Ultraviolet-laser ablation of skin. , 1985, Archives of dermatology.

[164]  K. R. Envall,et al.  Evaluation of commercially available laser protective eyewear , 1979 .

[165]  D H Sliney,et al.  But is it really light damage? , 1997, Ophthalmology.

[166]  A J Welch,et al.  Spotsize effects on guinea pig skin following pulsed irradiation. , 1988, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[167]  B A Rockwell,et al.  Ultrashort laser pulse bioeffects and safety. , 1999, Journal of laser applications.

[168]  Karl Schulmeister,et al.  Hazardous ultraviolet and blue-light emissions of CO2 laser beam welding , 1997 .

[169]  M L Wolbarsht,et al.  Testing visual capabilities for medical surveillance or to ensure job fitness. , 1985, Journal of occupational medicine. : official publication of the Industrial Medical Association.

[170]  W J Marshall.  Determining hazard distances from non-Gaussian lasers. , 1991, Applied optics.

[171]  Wesley J. Marshall.  Understanding laser hazard evaluation , 1995 .