The Effects of Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Children's Achievement and Cognitive Outcomes

Abstract It is common knowledge that physical activity leads to numerous health and psychological benefits. However, the relationship between children's physical activity and academic achievement has been debated in the literature. Some studies have found strong, positive relationships between physical activity and cognitive outcomes, while other studies have reported small, negative associations. This study was a comprehensive, quantitative synthesis of the literature, using a total of 59 studies from 1947 to 2009 for analysis. Results indicated a significant and positive effect of physical activity on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes, with aerobic exercise having the greatest effect. A number of moderator variables were also found to play a significant role in this relationship. Findings are discussed in light of improving children's academic performance and changing school-based policy.

[1]  D. Davis,et al.  The Basics of Exercising the Mind and Body , 2000 .

[2]  G. Colditz,et al.  One-year changes in activity and in inactivity among 10- to 15-year-old boys and girls: relationship to change in body mass index. , 2003, Pediatrics.

[3]  H. Pennypacker,et al.  The Effects of Exercise on Selected Classroom Behaviors of Behaviorally Disordered Adolescents , 1985 .

[4]  Ken Hardman,et al.  PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE , 2008 .

[5]  Roy J. Shephard,et al.  Curricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance , 1997 .

[6]  Jennifer L. Etnier,et al.  A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance , 2006, Brain Research Reviews.

[7]  W. Bukowski,et al.  Measuring Friendship Quality During Pre- and Early Adolescence: The Development and Psychometric Properties of the Friendship Qualities Scale , 1994 .

[8]  L. Burton,et al.  The Importance of Physical Activity in Closing the Achievement Gap , 2007 .

[9]  Richard Bailey,et al.  Physical education and sport in schools: a review of benefits and outcomes. , 2006, The Journal of school health.

[10]  P. Freedson,et al.  Compliance with physical activity guidelines: prevalence in a population of children and youth. , 2002, Annals of epidemiology.

[11]  J. Schendel.  Psychological Differences between Athletes and Nonparticipants in Athletics at Three Educational Levels , 1965 .

[12]  P. Veugelers,et al.  Self‐esteem and cognitive development in the era of the childhood obesity epidemic , 2008, Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity.

[13]  Jennifer L. Etnier,et al.  The Relationship between Physical Activity and Cognition in Children: A Meta-Analysis , 2003 .

[14]  Mark W. Lipsey,et al.  Practical Meta-Analysis , 2000 .

[15]  A. Kramer,et al.  Physical Activity, Aging, and Executive Control: Implications for Increased Cognitive Health , 2004 .

[16]  M. Kogan,et al.  A Multilevel Analysis of State and Regional Disparities in Childhood and Adolescent Obesity in the United States , 2008, Journal of Community Health.

[17]  J. Sallis,et al.  The Role of Built Environments in Physical Activity, Eating, and Obesity in Childhood , 2006, The Future of children.

[18]  Tom A. B. Snijders,et al.  Fixed-Effects Model , 2003 .

[19]  W. Railo.  Physical Fitness and Intellectual Achievement , 1969 .

[20]  Michael W. Beets,et al.  Social support and youth physical activity: the role of provider and type. , 2006, American journal of health behavior.

[21]  L. Hedges,et al.  The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis , 2009 .

[22]  Laura Kann,et al.  Youth risk behavior surveillance--United States, 2003. , 2004, Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance summaries.

[23]  J L Collins,et al.  Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance--United States, 1997. State and Local YRBSS Coordinators. , 1998, The Journal of school health.

[24]  B. Chissom.  A factor-analytic study of the relationship of motor factors to academic criteria for first- and third-grade boys. , 1971, Child development.

[25]  Betsy Jane Becker,et al.  Multivariate meta-analysis. , 2000 .

[26]  J. Dollman,et al.  Interactions of socioeconomic position with psychosocial and environmental correlates of children's physical activity: an observational study of South Australian families , 2009, The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity.

[27]  J. Kropski,et al.  School‐based Obesity Prevention Programs: An Evidence‐based Review , 2008, Obesity.

[28]  Penny Gordon-Larsen,et al.  Longitudinal physical activity and sedentary behavior trends: adolescence to adulthood. , 2004, American journal of preventive medicine.

[29]  Brandi M. Eveland-Sayers,et al.  Physical fitness and academic achievement in elementary school children. , 2007, Journal of physical activity & health.

[30]  Robert M Malina,et al.  Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. , 2006, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[31]  R B Flynn.  Numerical performance as a function of prior exercise and aerobic capacity for elementary school boys. , 1972, Research quarterly.

[32]  Jennifer L. Etnier,et al.  The Influence of Physical Fitness and Exercise upon Cognitive Functioning: A Meta-Analysis , 1997 .

[33]  K. Flegal,et al.  Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. , 2006, JAMA.

[34]  K. Fox,et al.  Friendship groups and physical activity: qualitative findings on how physical activity is initiated and maintained among 10–11 year old children , 2009, The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity.

[35]  C. Gabbard,et al.  Effects of Physical Activity on Mathematical Computation among Young Children. , 1979 .

[36]  R. Shephard,et al.  Relationships of Physical Activity to Brain Health and the Academic Performance of Schoolchildren , 2010 .

[37]  S. Morris.  Estimating Effect Sizes From Pretest-Posttest-Control Group Designs , 2008 .

[38]  R. Rosenthal.  Parametric measures of effect size. , 1994 .

[39]  G. Schofield,et al.  Responsibility for children's physical activity: parental, child, and teacher perspectives. , 2010, Journal of science and medicine in sport.

[40]  D. R. Kirkendall,et al.  Canonical relationships between the motor and intellectual achievement domains in culturally deprived high school pupils. , 1970, Research quarterly.

[41]  C. Hillman,et al.  Physical fitness and academic achievement in third- and fifth-grade students. , 2007, Journal of sport & exercise psychology.

[42]  C B Corbin,et al.  Restricting Opportunities to Be Active during School Time: Do Children Compensate by Increasing Physical Activity Levels after School? , 2000, Research quarterly for exercise and sport.

[43]  R. Pica,et al.  Beyond Physical Development: Why Young Children Need To Move. , 1997 .

[44]  R. Mcmurray.  Developmental Exercise Physiology , 1996 .

[45]  Jaekyung Lee.  Is Test-Driven External Accountability Effective? Synthesizing the Evidence From Cross-State Causal-Comparative and Correlational Studies , 2008 .

[46]  W. R. Johnson,et al.  Intellectual and perceptual motor development as a function of therapeutic play. , 1969, Research quarterly.

[47]  J. Fulton,et al.  Physical education and physical activity: results from the School Health Policies and Programs Study 2006. , 2007, The Journal of school health.

[48]  P. Sleight,et al.  Publication bias , 1991, The Lancet.

[49]  Anna Bugge,et al.  Daily physical activity related to aerobic fitness in young children , 2009 .

[50]  I. Ericsson,et al.  Motor skills, attention and academic achievements. An intervention study in school years 1–3 , 2008 .

[51]  Stephen W. Raudenbush,et al.  Analyzing effect sizes: Random-effects models. , 2009 .

[52]  J. Deffenbacher,et al.  Relaxation and Exercise for Hyperactive Impulsive Children , 1977, Perceptual and motor skills.

[53]  A. Kramer,et al.  Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition , 2008, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[54]  L. Hedges,et al.  The Handbook of Research Synthesis , 1995 .

[55]  J. Collins,et al.  Using the School Environment to Promote Physical Activity and Healthy Eating , 2000 .

[56]  C. Flodmark,et al.  Physical activity—key issues in treatment of childhood obesity , 2007, Acta paediatrica.

[57]  P. Naylor,et al.  School-based physical activity does not compromise children's academic performance. , 2007, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[58]  G. Graham.  Children’s and Adults’ Perceptions of Elementary School Physical Education , 2008, The Elementary School Journal.

[59]  Peter Blatchford,et al.  A Short-Term Longitudinal Study of Children's Playground Games in Primary School: Implications for Adjustment to School and Social Adjustment in the USA and the UK. , 2004 .

[60]  Ingram Olkin,et al.  Stochastically dependent effect sizes. , 1994 .

[61]  Charles H Hillman,et al.  A cross-sectional examination of age and physical activity on performance and event-related brain potentials in a task switching paradigm. , 2006, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[62]  Leonard H Epstein,et al.  Effect of peers and friends on youth physical activity and motivation to be physically active. , 2008, Journal of pediatric psychology.

[63]  Johannes Brug,et al.  Socioeconomic differences in lack of recreational walking among older adults: the role of neighbourhood and individual factors , 2009, The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity.

[64]  Emmanuel Stamatakis,et al.  Psychological Distress, Television Viewing, and Physical Activity in Children Aged 4 to 12 Years , 2009, Pediatrics.

[65]  Ken Hardman,et al.  The State and Status of Physical Education in Schools in International Context , 2000 .

[66]  W H Dietz,et al.  Inactivity, diet, and the fattening of America. , 1990, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[67]  R. Shephard.  Habitual physical activity and academic performance. , 2009, Nutrition reviews.

[68]  L. Hedges,et al.  Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis , 1987 .