Feature extraction methods for character recognition-A survey

This paper presents an overview of feature extraction methods for off-line recognition of segmented (isolated) characters. Selection of a feature extraction method is probably the single most important factor in achieving high recognition performance in character recognition systems. Different feature extraction methods are designed for different representations of the characters, such as solid binary characters, character contours, skeletons (thinned characters) or gray-level subimages of each individual character. The feature extraction methods are discussed in terms of invariance properties, reconstructability and expected distortions and variability of the characters. The problem of choosing the appropriate feature extraction method for a given application is also discussed. When a few promising feature extraction methods have been identified, they need to be evaluated experimentally to find the best method for the given application.

[1]  JOHN F. Young Machine Intelligence , 1971, Nature.

[2]  Sargur N. Srihari,et al.  Decision Combination in Multiple Classifier Systems , 1994, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[3]  Josef Kittler,et al.  Pattern recognition : a statistical approach , 1982 .

[4]  George Nagy,et al.  At the frontiers of OCR , 1992, Proc. IEEE.

[5]  S. R. Ramesh A generalized character recognition algorithm: A graphical approach , 1989, Pattern Recognit..

[6]  Mindy Bokser,et al.  Omnidocument technologies , 1992, Proc. IEEE.

[7]  Alireza Khotanzad,et al.  Invariant Image Recognition by Zernike Moments , 1990, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[8]  Seong-Whan Lee,et al.  Nonlinear shape normalization methods for the recognition of large-set handwritten characters , 1994, Pattern Recognit..

[9]  Øivind Due Trier,et al.  Evaluation of Binarization Methods for Document Images , 1995, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[10]  Dov Dori,et al.  Quantitative performance evaluation of thinning algorithms under noisy conditions , 1994, 1994 Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[11]  Geir Storvik,et al.  A Bayesian Approach to Dynamic Contours Through Stochastic Sampling and Simulated Annealing , 1994, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[12]  R. Haralick,et al.  The Topographic Primal Sketch , 1983 .

[13]  Paul D. Gader,et al.  Recognition of handwritten digits using template and model matching , 1991, Pattern Recognit..

[14]  Paramvir Bahl,et al.  Recognition of handwritten word: First and second order hidden Markov model based approach , 1989, Pattern Recognit..

[15]  Majid Ahmadi,et al.  Handwritten numeral recognition with multiple features and multistage classifiers , 1994, Proceedings of IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems - ISCAS '94.

[16]  Paul C. K. Kwok,et al.  A thinning algorithm by contour generation , 1988, CACM.

[17]  Amar Mitiche,et al.  Classifier combination for hand-printed digit recognition , 1993, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR '93).

[18]  Jack D. Tubbs,et al.  A note on binary template matching , 1989, Pattern Recognit..

[19]  Majid Ahmadi,et al.  Recognition of handwritten numerals with multiple feature and multistage classifier , 1995, Pattern Recognit..

[20]  M. Garris NIST form-based handprint recognition system , 1994 .

[21]  Chun-Shin Lin,et al.  New forms of shape invariants from elliptic fourier descriptors , 1987, Pattern Recognit..

[22]  Owen Robert Mitchell,et al.  Partial Shape Recognition Using Dynamic Programming , 1988, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[23]  Rui J. P. de Figueiredo,et al.  A general moment-invariants/attributed-graph method for three-dimensional object recognition from a single image , 1986, IEEE J. Robotics Autom..

[24]  Lawrence D. Jackel,et al.  Backpropagation Applied to Handwritten Zip Code Recognition , 1989, Neural Computation.

[25]  Dana H. Ballard,et al.  Computer Vision , 1982 .

[26]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Neural networks and pattern recognition , 1994 .

[27]  Theodosios Pavlidis,et al.  On the Recognition of Printed Characters of Any Font and Size , 1987, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[28]  Fritz Albregtsen,et al.  Fast computation of invariant geometric moments: a new method giving correct results , 1994, Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[29]  Fang-Hsuan Cheng,et al.  Recognition of Handwritten Chinese Characters by Modified Hough Transform Techniques , 1989, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[30]  Torfinn Taxt,et al.  Classification of handwritten vector symbols using elliptic Fourier descriptors , 1994, Proceedings of the 12th IAPR International Conference on Pattern Recognition, Vol. 3 - Conference C: Signal Processing (Cat. No.94CH3440-5).

[31]  Morten Daehlen,et al.  Recognition of handwritten symbols , 1990, Pattern Recognit..

[32]  Theo Pavlidis,et al.  A vectorizer and feature extractor for document recognition , 1986 .

[33]  Jan Flusser,et al.  Affine moment invariants: a new tool for character recognition , 1994, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[34]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Computer recognition of unconstrained handwritten numerals , 1992, Proc. IEEE.

[35]  M. McCarthy The statistical approach , 1959 .

[36]  Alberto Del Bimbo,et al.  OCR from poor quality images by deformation of elastic templates , 1994, Proceedings of the 12th IAPR International Conference on Pattern Recognition, Vol. 3 - Conference C: Signal Processing (Cat. No.94CH3440-5).

[37]  Majid Ahmadi,et al.  Pattern recognition with moment invariants: A comparative study and new results , 1991, Pattern Recognit..

[38]  M. Berthod,et al.  Automatic recognition of handprinted characters—The state of the art , 1980, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[39]  Gösta H. Granlund,et al.  Fourier Preprocessing for Hand Print Character Recognition , 1972, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[40]  King-Sun Fu,et al.  Shape Discrimination Using Fourier Descriptors , 1977, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[41]  Dave Elliman,et al.  A review of segmentation and contextual analysis techniques for text recognition , 1990, Pattern Recognit..

[42]  Thomas H. Reiss,et al.  The revised Fundamental Theorem of Moment Invariants , 1991, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[43]  Jan Flusser,et al.  Pattern recognition by affine moment invariants , 1993, Pattern Recognit..

[44]  Fang-Hsuan Cheng,et al.  Recognition of handprinted chinese characters via stroke relaxation , 1993, Pattern Recognit..

[45]  Toru Wakahara,et al.  Shape Matching Using LAT and its Application to Handwritten Numeral Recognition , 1994, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[46]  Theodosios Pavlidis,et al.  Direct Gray-Scale Extraction of Features for Character Recognition , 1993, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[47]  Harry C. Andrews,et al.  Multidimensional Rotations in Feature Selection , 1971, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[48]  Charles R. Giardina,et al.  Elliptic Fourier features of a closed contour , 1982, Comput. Graph. Image Process..

[49]  Theodosios Pavlidis,et al.  Recognition of printed text under realistic conditions , 1993, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[50]  Jonathan J. Hull,et al.  A Database for Handwritten Text Recognition Research , 1994, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[51]  Roland T. Chin,et al.  One-Pass Parallel Thinning: Analysis, Properties, and Quantitative Evaluation , 1992, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[52]  Mohan M. Trivedi,et al.  Image Analysis Applications , 1990 .

[53]  Robert P. W. Duin,et al.  Superlearning and neural network magic , 1994, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[54]  Adam Krzyżak,et al.  Methods of combining multiple classifiers and their applications to handwriting recognition , 1992, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern..

[55]  David J. Burr,et al.  Elastic Matching of Line Drawings , 1981, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[56]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Historical review of OCR research and development , 1992, Proc. IEEE.

[57]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Thinning Methodologies - A Comprehensive Survey , 1992, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[58]  Omid Omidvar,et al.  Neural Networks and Pattern Recognition , 1997 .

[59]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  A fast parallel algorithm for thinning digital patterns , 1984, CACM.

[60]  V. K. Govindan,et al.  Character recognition - A review , 1990, Pattern Recognit..

[61]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Hierarchical attributed graph representation and recognition of handwritten chinese characters , 1991, Pattern Recognit..

[62]  Hiromitsu Yamada,et al.  Feature extraction of handwritten Japanese , 1988, Pattern Recognit..

[63]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Data capture from maps based on gray scale topographic analysis , 1995, Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition.

[64]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  39 Dimensionality and sample size considerations in pattern recognition practice , 1982, Classification, Pattern Recognition and Reduction of Dimensionality.

[65]  Yasuaki Nakano,et al.  Segmentation methods for character recognition: from segmentation to document structure analysis , 1992, Proc. IEEE.

[66]  Ralph Roskies,et al.  Fourier Descriptors for Plane Closed Curves , 1972, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[67]  Toru Wakahara,et al.  Toward robust handwritten character recognition , 1993, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[68]  Anders Krogh,et al.  Introduction to the theory of neural computation , 1994, The advanced book program.

[69]  Hiromitsu Yamada,et al.  A nonlinear normalization method for handprinted kanji character recognition - line density equalization , 1990, Pattern Recognit..

[70]  Fumitaka Kimura,et al.  Handwritten numerical recognition based on multiple algorithms , 1991, Pattern Recognit..

[71]  Richard O. Duda,et al.  Use of the Hough transformation to detect lines and curves in pictures , 1972, CACM.

[72]  Ming-Kuei Hu,et al.  Visual pattern recognition by moment invariants , 1962, IRE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[73]  Rangaraj M. Rangayyan,et al.  Application of shape analysis to mammographic calcifications , 1994, IEEE Trans. Medical Imaging.

[74]  Richard O. Duda,et al.  Pattern classification and scene analysis , 1974, A Wiley-Interscience publication.

[75]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Building a new generation of handwriting recognition systems , 1993, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[76]  Yajun Li,et al.  Reforming the theory of invariant moments for pattern recognition , 1992, Pattern Recognit..

[77]  J. Mantas,et al.  An overview of character recognition methodologies , 1986, Pattern Recognit..

[78]  B. Ripley,et al.  Pattern Recognition , 1968, Nature.

[79]  Patrick J. Grother,et al.  NIST Form-Based Handprint Recognition System , 1994 .

[80]  T. Pavlidis,et al.  Detection of curved and straight segments from gray scale topography , 1993 .

[81]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Goal-Directed Evaluation of Binarization Methods , 1995, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[82]  Patrick S. P. Wang,et al.  Character segmentation techniques for handwritten text-a survey , 1992, Proceedings., 11th IAPR International Conference on Pattern Recognition. Vol.II. Conference B: Pattern Recognition Methodology and Systems.

[83]  Thomas H. Reiss,et al.  Recognizing Planar Objects Using Invariant Image Features , 1993, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[84]  James Westall,et al.  Vertex directed segmentation of handwritten numerals , 1993, Pattern Recognit..

[85]  B. N. Chatterji Feature Extraction Methods for Character Recognition , 1986 .

[86]  Julian R. Ullmann,et al.  Pattern recognition techniques , 1973 .

[87]  Paramvir Bahl,et al.  Recognition of handwritten word: first and second order hidden Markov model based approach , 1988, Proceedings CVPR '88: The Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[88]  Alireza Khotanzad,et al.  Rotation invariant image recognition using features selected via a systematic method , 1990, Pattern Recognition.

[89]  M. Turk,et al.  Eigenfaces for Recognition , 1991, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[90]  Keinosuke Fukunaga,et al.  Introduction to Statistical Pattern Recognition , 1972 .

[91]  King-Sun Fu,et al.  Syntactic Pattern Recognition And Applications , 1968 .

[92]  J. Pearl,et al.  Recognition of Handwritten Chinese Characters by Modified Hough Transform Techniques , 1989 .

[93]  Bin Chen,et al.  Recognition of handwritten Chinese characters via short line segments , 1992, Pattern Recognit..