The effects of percolation in nanostructured transparent conductors

Networks of nanoscale conductors such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and metallic nanowires are promising candidates to replace metal oxides as transparent conductors. However, very few previous reports have described nanostructured thin films that reach the standards required by industry for high-performance transparent electrodes. In this review, we analyze the sheet resistance and transmittance data extracted from published literature for solution processed, nanostructured networks. In the majority of cases, as their thickness is reduced below a critical value, nanoconductor networks undergo a transition from bulk-like to percolative behavior. Such percolative behavior is characteristic of sparse networks with limited connectivity and few continuous conductive paths. This transition tends to occur for films with a transmittance between 50% and 90%, which means that the properties of highly transparent films are predominately limited by percolation. Consequently, to achieve low resistance coupled with high transparency, the networks must be much more conductive than would otherwise be the case. We show that highly conductive networks of metallic nanowires appear to be the most promising candidate to replace traditional transparent electrode materials from a technical standpoint. However, many other factors, including cost, manufacturability, and stability, will have to be addressed before commercialization of these materials.

[1]  Yang Xu,et al.  Comparative study on different carbon nanotube materials in terms of transparent conductive coatings. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[2]  Martin Dressel,et al.  Electrodynamics of Solids: Optical Properties of Electrons in Matter , 2002 .

[3]  G. Eda,et al.  Improved conductivity of transparent single-wall carbon nanotube thin films via stable postdeposition functionalization , 2007 .

[4]  J. Coleman,et al.  Spray deposition of highly transparent, low-resistance networks of silver nanowires over large areas. , 2011, Small.

[5]  Miss A.O. Penney (b) , 1974, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[6]  László Forró,et al.  Optical and dc conductivity study of potassium-doped single-walled carbon nanotube films , 2000 .

[7]  L. P. Tan,et al.  Using oxidation to increase the electrical conductivity of carbon nanotube electrodes , 2009 .

[8]  Rodney S. Ruoff,et al.  Transparent self-assembled films of reduced graphene oxide platelets , 2009 .

[9]  H. Dai,et al.  Highly conducting graphene sheets and Langmuir-Blodgett films. , 2008, Nature nanotechnology.

[10]  Yunqi Liu,et al.  Optimizing Single‐Walled Carbon Nanotube Films for Applications in Electroluminescent Devices , 2008 .

[11]  Giovanni Fanchini,et al.  Optical anisotropy in single-walled carbon nanotube thin films: implications for transparent and conducting electrodes in organic photovoltaics. , 2008, Nano letters.

[12]  DARRAN R. CAIRNS,et al.  Electromechanical Properties of Transparent Conducting Substrates for Flexible Electronic Displays , 2005, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[13]  John J Boland,et al.  Transparent, flexible, and highly conductive thin films based on polymer-nanotube composites. , 2009, ACS nano.

[14]  U. Diebold,et al.  The surface and materials science of tin oxide , 2005 .

[15]  John J Boland,et al.  Electrical connectivity in single-walled carbon nanotube networks. , 2009, Nano letters.

[16]  S. Redner,et al.  Introduction To Percolation Theory , 2018 .

[17]  Gaetano Granozzi,et al.  Evolution of Electrical, Chemical, and Structural Properties of Transparent and Conducting Chemically Derived Graphene Thin Films , 2009 .

[18]  Klaus Müllen,et al.  Transparent carbon films as electrodes in organic solar cells. , 2008, Angewandte Chemie.

[19]  M. Chhowalla,et al.  Design criteria for transparent single-wall carbon nanotube thin-film transistors. , 2006, Nano letters.

[20]  Franklin Kim,et al.  Langmuir-Blodgett assembly of graphite oxide single layers. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[21]  Zhenan Bao,et al.  Organic solar cells with solution-processed graphene transparent electrodes , 2008 .

[22]  Liangbing Hu,et al.  High conductivity transparent carbon nanotube films deposited from superacid , 2011, Nanotechnology.

[23]  Chun-Wei Chen,et al.  Transparent and conducting electrodes for organic electronics from reduced graphene oxide , 2008 .

[24]  N. Peres,et al.  Fine Structure Constant Defines Visual Transparency of Graphene , 2008, Science.

[25]  Yong Tae Park,et al.  Heating and acid doping thin film carbon nanotube assemblies for high transparency and low sheet resistance , 2011 .

[26]  A. Green,et al.  Solution phase production of graphene with controlled thickness via density differentiation. , 2009, Nano letters.

[27]  Yi Cui,et al.  Electrospun metal nanofiber webs as high-performance transparent electrode. , 2010, Nano letters.

[28]  Werner J. Blau,et al.  The spatial uniformity and electromechanical stability of transparent, conductive films of single walled nanotubes , 2009 .

[29]  J. Coleman,et al.  The relationship between network morphology and conductivity in nanotube films , 2008 .

[30]  Stefan Kaskel,et al.  Flexible and transparent SWCNT electrodes for alternating current electroluminescence devices. , 2009, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[31]  Hee‐Tae Jung,et al.  Enhanced Electrical Conductivities of Transparent Double-Walled Carbon Nanotube Network Films by Post-treatment , 2009 .

[32]  G. G. Stokes "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[33]  K. Müllen,et al.  Transparent, conductive graphene electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. , 2008, Nano letters.

[34]  Byeong-Su Kim,et al.  Transparent, flexible conducting hybrid multilayer thin films of multiwalled carbon nanotubes with graphene nanosheets. , 2010, ACS nano.

[35]  Jing Sun,et al.  Stable Nafion-functionalized graphene dispersions for transparent conducting films , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[36]  Yves Leterrier,et al.  Mechanical integrity of transparent conductive oxide films for flexible polymer-based displays , 2004 .

[37]  Mark C. Hersam,et al.  Colored semitransparent conductive coatings consisting of monodisperse metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes. , 2008, Nano letters.

[38]  Martin Dressel,et al.  Electrodynamics of solids , 2002 .

[39]  Wei Wang,et al.  The fracture of brittle thin films on compliant substrates in flexible displays , 2002 .

[40]  Anuj R. Madaria,et al.  Large scale, highly conductive and patterned transparent films of silver nanowires on arbitrary substrates and their application in touch screens , 2011, Nanotechnology.

[41]  H. Tien,et al.  The production of graphene nanosheets decorated with silver nanoparticles for use in transparent, conductive films , 2011 .

[42]  M. Rowell,et al.  Transparent electrode requirements for thin film solar cell modules , 2011 .

[43]  L. Drzal,et al.  A novel approach to create a highly ordered monolayer film of graphene nanosheets at the liquid-liquid interface. , 2009, Nano letters.

[44]  J. Coleman,et al.  Flexible, transparent, conducting films of randomly stacked graphene from surfactant-stabilized, oxide-free graphene dispersions. , 2010, Small.

[45]  Thomas M. Higgins,et al.  Silver Nanowire Networks as Flexible, Transparent, Conducting Films: Extremely High DC to Optical Conductivity Ratios. , 2009, ACS nano.

[46]  Soohyun Kim,et al.  Conductivity of films made from single-walled carbon nanotubes in terms of bundle diameter , 2009 .

[47]  Young Hee Lee,et al.  Effect of acid treatment on carbon nanotube-based flexible transparent conducting films. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[48]  Liangbing Hu,et al.  Emerging Transparent Electrodes Based on Thin Films of Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, and Metallic Nanostructures , 2011, Advanced materials.

[49]  John R. Reynolds,et al.  Transparent, Conductive Carbon Nanotube Films , 2004, Science.

[50]  Tarek Lutz,et al.  Nanoscale mapping of electrical resistivity and connectivity in graphene strips and networks. , 2011, Nano letters.

[51]  Jin Jang,et al.  Fabrication and effect of post treatment on flexible single-walled carbon nanotube films , 2010 .

[52]  Hui-Ming Cheng,et al.  The fabrication of a carbon nanotube transparent conductive film by electrophoretic deposition and hot-pressing transfer , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[53]  K. Novoselov,et al.  Graphene-based liquid crystal device. , 2008, Nano letters (Print).

[54]  Edgar Muñoz,et al.  Fabrication and characterization of thin films of single-walled carbon nanotube bundles on flexible plastic substrates. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[55]  E. Williams,et al.  Solution-processed single walled carbon nanotube electrodes for organic thin-film transistors , 2009 .

[56]  Liangbing Hu,et al.  Percolation in transparent and conducting carbon nanotube networks , 2004 .

[57]  A. Afzali,et al.  Stable Charge-Transfer Doping of Transparent Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Films , 2010 .

[58]  Yi Cui,et al.  Scalable coating and properties of transparent, flexible, silver nanowire electrodes. , 2010, ACS nano.

[59]  V. Saini,et al.  Does the wall number of carbon nanotubes matter as conductive transparent material , 2007 .

[60]  J. Coleman,et al.  Size effects and the problem with percolation in nanostructured transparent conductors. , 2010, ACS nano.

[61]  A. Rinzler,et al.  Far-infrared to visible optical conductivity of single-wall carbon nanotubes , 2001 .

[62]  Jong Hak Lee,et al.  A role of HNO3 on transparent conducting film with single-walled carbon nanotubes , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[63]  Young-Kwan Kim,et al.  Durable large-area thin films of graphene/carbon nanotube double layers as a transparent electrode. , 2009, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[64]  Young Hee Lee,et al.  Absorption spectroscopy of surfactant-dispersed carbon nanotube film: Modulation of electronic structures , 2008 .

[65]  N. Koch,et al.  Transparent, highly conductive graphene electrodes from acetylene-assisted thermolysis of graphite oxide sheets and nanographene molecules , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[66]  Chongwu Zhou,et al.  Uniform, highly conductive, and patterned transparent films of a percolating silver nanowire network on rigid and flexible substrates using a dry transfer technique , 2010 .

[67]  Dae Sik Lee,et al.  Doping and de-doping of carbon nanotube transparent conducting films by dispersant and chemical treatment , 2008 .

[68]  R. Stoltenberg,et al.  Evaluation of solution-processed reduced graphene oxide films as transparent conductors. , 2008, ACS nano.

[69]  G. Eda,et al.  Large-area ultrathin films of reduced graphene oxide as a transparent and flexible electronic material. , 2008, Nature nanotechnology.

[70]  Young Hee Lee,et al.  Effect of Carbon Nanotube Types in Fabricating Flexible Transparent Conducting Films , 2008 .

[71]  R. Gordon Criteria for Choosing Transparent Conductors , 2000 .

[72]  G. Crawford,et al.  Strain-dependent electrical resistance of tin-doped indium oxide on polymer substrates , 2000 .

[73]  Jonathan N. Coleman,et al.  Very thin transparent, conductive carbon nanotube films on flexible substrates , 2010 .

[74]  Liangbing Hu,et al.  Conductivity scaling with bundle length and diameter in single walled carbon nanotube networks , 2006 .

[75]  Hisato Yamaguchi,et al.  Highly uniform 300 mm wafer-scale deposition of single and multilayered chemically derived graphene thin films. , 2010, ACS nano.

[76]  J. Coleman,et al.  Are there fundamental limitations on the sheet resistance and transmittance of thin graphene films? , 2010, ACS nano.

[77]  Yi Cui,et al.  Solution-processed metal nanowire mesh transparent electrodes. , 2008, Nano letters.

[78]  M. Pasquali,et al.  Continuous and scalable fabrication of transparent conducting carbon nanotube films. , 2009, ACS nano.

[79]  Benjamin J Wiley,et al.  The Growth Mechanism of Copper Nanowires and Their Properties in Flexible, Transparent Conducting Films , 2010, Advanced materials.

[80]  Mark C Hersam,et al.  Processing and properties of highly enriched double-wall carbon nanotubes. , 2009, Nature nanotechnology.