Field Measurement of Suction, Water Content, and Water Permeability

This paper presents a review of techniques for field measurement of suction, water content, and water hydraulic conductivity (permeability). Main problems in the use of field tensiometers are addressed and hints on how to improve tensiometer performance are given. Advantages and limitations of instruments for indirect measurement of suction including electrical conductivity sensors, thermal conductivity sensors, dielectric permittivity sensors, filter paper, and psychrometer are discussed. Techniques for water content measurement based on dielectric methods are then presented. These include time and amplitude domain reflectometry and capacitance. Finally, a brief overview of methods for measurement of water permeability in the field is presented.

[1]  L. Smith,et al.  Long-term measurement of matric suction using thermal conductivity sensors , 2003 .

[2]  Garrison Sposito,et al.  Structure of water adsorbed on smectites , 1982 .

[3]  D. Or,et al.  Geometrical factors and interfacial processes affecting complex dielectric permittivity of partially saturated porous media , 2006 .

[4]  Christian Roth,et al.  Improving the calibration of dielectric TDR soil moisture determination taking into account the solid soil , 1996 .

[5]  A. Stogryn,et al.  Equations for Calculating the Dielectric Constant of Saline Water (Correspondence) , 1971 .

[6]  Behrouz Gatmiri,et al.  UDAM: A powerful finite element software for the analysis of unsaturated porous media , 1998 .

[7]  Kosuke Noborio,et al.  Field measurements of soil electrical conductivity and water content by time-domain reflectometry , 1994 .

[8]  W. R. Whalley.  Considerations on the use of time‐domain reflectometry (TDR) for measuring soil water content , 1993 .

[9]  Daniel B. Stephens,et al.  Vadose Zone Hydrology , 1995 .

[10]  Chih-Ping Lin,et al.  Accurate time domain reflectometry measurement of electrical conductivity accounting for cable resistance and recording time , 2007 .

[11]  T. J. Dean,et al.  SOIL MOISTURE MEASUREMENT BY AN IMPROVED CAPACITANCE TECHNIQUE, PART I. SENSOR DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE , 1987 .

[12]  J. Miller,et al.  Measurement of Soil Water Content Using a Simplified Impedance Measuring Technique , 1996 .

[13]  Reinder A. Feddes,et al.  Dielectric Relaxation of Bound Water versus Soil Matric Pressure , 2001 .

[14]  A. P. Annan,et al.  Electromagnetic Determination of Soil Water Content Using TDR: II. Evaluation of Installation and Configuration of Parallel Transmission Lines1 , 1982 .

[15]  C S Gourley,et al.  FIELD MEASUREMENT OF SOIL SUCTION , 1995 .

[16]  Michel Vauclin,et al.  Theoretical evidence for `Lichtenecker's mixture formulae' based on the effective medium theory , 1998 .

[17]  David G. Toll,et al.  A System for Field Measurement of Suction Using High Capacity Tensiometers , 2008 .

[18]  R. R. Allmaras,et al.  System for Automating and Multiplexing Soil Moisture Measurement by Time‐Domain Reflectometry , 1990 .

[19]  Garrison Sposito,et al.  The surface chemistry of soils , 1984 .

[20]  G. C. Topp,et al.  Determination of electrical conductivity using time domain reflectometry: Soil and water experiments in coaxial lines , 1988 .

[21]  D. A. Cameron,et al.  The extent of soil desiccation near trees in a semi-arid environment , 2001 .

[22]  S. Hamburg,et al.  Automatic, real-time monitoring of soil moisture in a remote field area with time domain reflectometry. , 1991 .

[23]  J. Burland,et al.  Measurement of Suction in Materials Which Swell , 1995 .

[24]  D Croney,et al.  FIELD STUDIES OF THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE , 1958 .

[25]  G. Wyseure,et al.  The use of insulated time-domain reflectometry sensors to measure water content in highly saline soils , 1998, Irrigation Science.

[26]  J. Ayars,et al.  Calibration of capacitance probe sensors in a saline silty clay soil , 2004 .

[27]  David A. Robinson,et al.  Modelling the relative permittivity of soils using soil hygroscopic water content , 2002 .

[28]  D G Fredlund,et al.  Calibration of Thermal Conductivity Sensors for Measuring Soil Suction , 1989 .

[29]  P. Delage,et al.  A FORMULATION OF FULLY COUPLED THERMAL–HYDRAULIC–MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED POROUS MEDIA—NUMERICAL APPROACH , 1997 .

[30]  S. R. Evett.  The TACQ computer program for automatic time domain reflectometry measurements: II. waveform interpretation methods. , 2000 .

[31]  John Knight,et al.  A numerically based analysis of the sensitivity of conventional and alternative time domain reflectometry probes , 2000 .

[32]  Guido Wyseure,et al.  Measurement of volumetric water content by TDR in saline soils , 1997 .

[33]  T. Heimovaara.  Design of Triple‐Wire Time Domain Reflectometry Probes in Practice and Theory , 1993 .

[34]  L. A. Richards.  SOIL MOISTURE TENSIOMETER MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION , 1942 .

[35]  W. H. Johnston.  Calibration of gypsum blocks and data loggers and their evaluation for monitoring soil water status , 2000 .

[36]  Chih-Ping Lin,et al.  Comprehensive wave propagation model to improve TDR interpretations for geotechnical applications , 2007 .

[37]  R. Berndtsson,et al.  Texture and electrical conductivity effects on temperature dependency in time domain reflectometry , 1998 .

[38]  G. P. de Loor,et al.  Dielectric Properties of Heterogeneous Mixtures Containing Water , 1968 .

[39]  J. O'm. Bockris,et al.  Dielectric Relaxation in the Electric Double Layer , 1966 .

[40]  Kosuke Noborio,et al.  Measurement of soil water content and electrical conductivity by time domain reflectometry: a review , 2001 .

[41]  G. Topp,et al.  THE MEASUREMENT OF SOIL WATER CONTENT USING A PORTABLE TDR HAND PROBE , 1984 .

[42]  D. Or,et al.  Time domain reflectometry measurement principles and applications , 2002 .

[43]  D. Elrick,et al.  Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity Using a Tension Infiltrometer , 1991 .

[44]  G. Topp,et al.  Time domain reflectometry : a seminal technique for measuring mass and energy in soil , 1998 .

[45]  C. Dirksen,et al.  IMPROVED CALIBRATION OF TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY SOIL WATER CONTENT MEASUREMENTS , 1993 .

[46]  Craig H. Benson,et al.  Comparison of Four Methods to Assess Hydraulic Conductivity , 1997 .

[47]  Timo Saarenketo,et al.  Electrical properties of water in clay and silty soils , 1998 .

[48]  M. G. Hodnett,et al.  The dielectric calibration of capacitance probes for soil hydrology using an oscillation frequency response model , 1998 .

[49]  Kevin M. O'Connor,et al.  GeoMeasurements by Pulsing TDR Cables and Probes , 1999 .

[50]  Makino,et al.  Effects of pH on Dielectric Relaxation of Montmorillonite, Allophane, and Imogolite Suspensions. , 1999, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[51]  J. Carrera,et al.  Numerical formulation for a simulator (CODE_BRIGHT) for the coupled analysis of saline media , 1996 .

[52]  L. A. Richards,et al.  Further Developments on Apparatus for Field Moisture Studies , 1938 .

[53]  S. Jones,et al.  Considerations for Improving the Accuracy of Permittivity Measurement using Time Domain Reflectometry , 2003 .

[54]  Vincent P. Drnevich,et al.  Theoretical model of a multisection time domain reflectometry measurement system , 1999 .

[55]  C. J. Lynde,et al.  On a New Methods of Measuring the Capillary Lift of Soils 1 , 1913 .

[56]  Steven R. Evett,et al.  Time Domain Reflectometry Laboratory Calibration in Travel Time, Bulk Electrical Conductivity, and Effective Frequency , 2005 .

[57]  Determining the Unfrozen Water Content in Soils by Time-Domain Reflectometry , 1984 .

[58]  G. C. Topp,et al.  Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and Its Application to Irrigation Scheduling* , 1985 .

[59]  G. C. Topp,et al.  Impacts of the Real and Imaginary Components of Relative Permittivity on Time Domain Reflectometry Measurements in Soils , 2000 .

[60]  Marcel G. Schaap,et al.  On the effective measurement frequency of time domain reflectometry in dispersive and nonconductive dielectric materials , 2005 .

[61]  Reinder A. Feddes,et al.  New dielectric mixture equation for porous materials based on depolarization factors , 2000 .

[62]  J. E. Campbell,et al.  Dielectric properties and influence of conductivity in soils at one to fifty megahertz , 1990 .

[63]  H. Vereecken,et al.  Determining soil water content variation along the TDR probe with inverse modeling: theory, practice and challenges , 2006 .

[64]  Alessandro Tarantino,et al.  Measurement of Matric Suction Using Tensiometric and Axis Translation Techniques , 2008 .

[65]  S. Dautrebande,et al.  A method of measuring soil moisture by time-domain reflectometry , 1986 .

[66]  Craig Nichol,et al.  Evaluation of uncoated and coated time domain reflectometry probes for high electrical conductivity systems , 2002 .

[67]  R. Kodešová,et al.  Comparison of soil hydraulic property measurement methods , 2004 .

[68]  Michael H. Young,et al.  Two‐ and three‐parameter calibrations of time domain reflectometry for soil moisture measurement , 1997 .

[69]  Rifat Bulut,et al.  Indirect Measurement of Suction , 2008 .

[70]  Steven R. Evett,et al.  Soil Material, Temperature, and Salinity Effects on Calibration of Multisensor Capacitance Probes , 2000 .

[71]  Egbert J. A. Spaans,et al.  Simple Baluns in Parallel Probes for Time Domain Reflectometry , 1993 .

[72]  John Knight,et al.  The sample areas of conventional and alternative time domain reflectometry probes , 1998 .

[73]  D. G. Fredlund,et al.  Use of a New Thermal Conductivity Sensor to Measure Soil Suction , 2000 .

[74]  C.-P. Lin.  Analysis of nonuniform and dispersive time domain reflectometry measurement systems with application to the dielectric spectroscopy of soils , 2003 .

[75]  Per Moldrup,et al.  Theoretical Background for the TDR Methodology , 1995 .

[76]  Shmulik P. Friedman,et al.  A method for measuring the solid particle permittivity or electrical conductivity of rocks, sediments, and granular materials , 2003 .

[77]  A. Gens,et al.  An elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical behaviour , 2003 .

[78]  Willem Bouten,et al.  Frequency domain analysis of time domain reflectometry waveforms: 2. A four‐component complex dielectric mixing model for soils , 1994 .

[79]  Peter J. Shouse,et al.  The Effect of Ohmic Cable Losses on Time-Domain Reflectometry Measurements of Electrical Conductivity , 2003 .

[80]  S. D. Logsdon,et al.  Dielectric spectra of bound water in hydrated Ca-smectite , 2002 .

[81]  R. Carmichael.  Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals , 1989 .

[82]  O. H. Jacobsen,et al.  A laboratory calibration of time domain reflectometry for soil water measurement including effects of bulk density and texture , 1993 .

[83]  Delwyn G. Fredlund,et al.  Calibration of thermal conductivity sensors with consideration of hysteresis , 2003 .

[84]  Katsuyuki Kawai,et al.  Laboratory Hydraulic Testing in Unsaturated Soils , 2008 .

[85]  Steeve Pepin,et al.  Peat water content measurement using time domain reflectometry , 1992 .

[86]  A. Banin,et al.  A correlative study of the chemical and physical properties of a group of natural soils of Israel. , 1970 .

[87]  Y. Cui,et al.  Laboratory and Field Testing of Unsaturated Soils , 2009 .

[88]  E. I. Parkhomenko.  Electrical properties of rocks , 1967 .

[89]  D. Or,et al.  Temperature effects on soil bulk dielectric permittivity measured by time domain reflectometry: Experimental evidence and hypothesis development , 1999 .

[90]  R. Kachanoski,et al.  A numerical analysis of the effects of coatings and gaps upon relative dielectric permittivity measurement with time domain reflectometry , 1997 .

[91]  S. Dasberg,et al.  Time Domain Reflectometry Measurements of Water Content and Electrical Conductivity of Layered Soil Columns , 1991 .

[92]  Thomas J. Jackson,et al.  Calibration of an impedance probe for estimation of surface soil water content over large regions , 2005 .

[93]  T. Gish,et al.  Soil Moisture Determination in Gravelly Soils with Time Domain Reflectometryd , 1989 .

[94]  Keith A. Smith,et al.  Soil and environmental analysis : physical methods , 2000 .

[95]  D. Fredlund,et al.  Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils: Fredlund/Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils , 1993 .

[96]  A. P. Annan,et al.  Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurements in coaxial transmission lines , 1980 .

[97]  Antonio Gens,et al.  Coupled analysis of a backfill hydration test , 1998 .

[98]  Yu-Jun Cui,et al.  Monitoring field soil suction using a miniature tensiometer , 2008 .

[99]  W. N. Herkelrath,et al.  Time-Domain Reflectometry: Simultaneous Measurement of Soil Water Content and Electrical Conductivity with a Single Probe , 1984, Science.

[100]  R. Schulin,et al.  Calibration of time domain reflectometry for water content measurement using a composite dielectric approach , 1990 .

[101]  John Burland,et al.  A new instrument for the measurement of soil moisture suction , 1993 .

[102]  Allan J. Delaney,et al.  Dielectric properties of soils at UHF and microwave frequencies 36R. J. Geophys. Res. V79, N11, Apr. 1974, P1699–1708 , 1974 .

[103]  Scott B. Jones,et al.  Extending TDR measurement range in saline soils using frequency-domain methods , 2001 .

[104]  J. Loehr,et al.  Sealed Double-Ring Infiltrometers for Estimating Very Low Hydraulic Conductivities , 2005 .

[105]  David A. Robinson,et al.  Measurement of relative permittivity in sandy soils using TDR, capacitance and theta probes: comparison, including the effects of bulk soil electrical conductivity , 1999 .

[106]  I. White,et al.  Designs for disc permeameters , 1988 .

[107]  G. Topp,et al.  Measurement of Soil Water Content using Time‐domain Reflectrometry (TDR): A Field Evaluation , 1985 .

[108]  G. S. Campbell,et al.  Calibration and Temperature Correction of Heat Dissipation Matric Potential Sensors , 2002 .

[109]  Nigel J. Livingston,et al.  Temperature‐Dependent Measurement Errors in Time Domain Reflectometry Determinations of Soil Water , 1995 .

[110]  W. R. Hook,et al.  Propagation Velocity Errors in Time Domain Reflectometry Measurements of Soil Water , 1995 .

[111]  S. Zegelin,et al.  Improved field probes for soil water content and electrical conductivity measurement using time domain reflectometry , 1989 .

[112]  Enrique Edgar Romero Morales,et al.  Characterisation and thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated Boom clay: an experimental study , 1999 .

[113]  Jan W. Hopmans,et al.  Time Domain Reflectometry Calibration for Uniformly and Nonuniformly Wetted Sandy and Clayey Loam Soils , 1992 .

[114]  Y. Cui,et al.  Water Balance and Evapotranspiration Monitoring in Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering , 2008 .

[115]  K. Giese,et al.  Determination of the complex permittivity from thin-sample time domain reflectometry improved analysis of the step response waveform , 1975 .

[116]  Timo J. Heimovaara,et al.  Frequency domain analysis of time domain reflectometry waveforms: 1. Measurement of the complex dielectric permittivity of soils , 1994 .

[117]  A. M. Nicolson.  Forming the fast Fourier transform of a step response in time-domain metrology , 1973 .

[118]  Li Xiang,et al.  An Elastoplastic Hydro-mechanical Model for Unsaturated Soils , 2007, International Conference on Computational Science.

[119]  J. Starr,et al.  Real-time soil water dynamics using multisensor capacitance probes : Laboratory calibration , 1997 .

[120]  E. Spaans,et al.  Comments on “Time Domain Reflectometry Measurements of Water Content and Electrical Conductivity of Layered Soil Columns” , 1993 .

[121]  M. Smith,et al.  The measurement of unfrozen water content by time domain reflectometry: results from laboratory tests , 1981 .

[122]  Antonio Gens,et al.  A constitutive model for partially saturated soils , 1990 .

[123]  G. Wilson,et al.  Instrumentation and monitoring of an engineered soil cover system for mine waste rock , 1998 .

[124]  John Burland,et al.  Soil matrix suction: some examples of its measurement and application in geotechnical engineering , 2003 .

[125]  Willem Bouten,et al.  A Computer-Controlled 36-Channel Time Domain Reflectometry System for Monitoring Soil Water Contents , 1990 .

[126]  D. Fredlund,et al.  MATRIC SUCTION MONITORING IN AN EXPANSIVE SOIL SUBGRADE IN KENYA , 1995 .

[127]  Chih-Ping Lin,et al.  Frequency Domain Versus Travel Time Analyses of TDR Waveforms for Soil Moisture Measurements , 2003 .

[128]  David A. Robinson.  Comments on ``Field calibration of a capacitance water content probe in fine sand soils'' , 2001 .

[129]  S. Friedman.  A saturation degree‐dependent composite spheres model for describing the effective dielectric constant of unsaturated porous media , 1998 .

[130]  S. Jones,et al.  A Review of Advances in Dielectric and Electrical Conductivity Measurement in Soils Using Time Domain Reflectometry , 2003 .

[131]  Jean Caron,et al.  In situ determination of the water desorption characteristics of peat substrates , 1993 .

[132]  L. A. Richards.  METHODS OF MEASURING SOIL MOISTURE TENSION , 1949 .

[133]  J. Šimůnek,et al.  A new CPT method for estimating soil hydraulic properties. , 1998 .

[134]  G. C. Topp,et al.  Multiple reflection and attenuation of time domain reflectometry pulses: Theoretical considerations for applications to soil and water , 1988 .

[135]  Johan Alexander Huisman,et al.  Clarification and Calibration of Reflection Coefficient for Electrical Conductivity Measurement by Time Domain Reflectometry , 2008 .

[136]  Samuel H. Russ,et al.  Electromagnetics with Applications , 1984 .

[137]  D. Fredlund,et al.  Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils , 1993 .

[138]  D. Elrick,et al.  IN SITU MEASUREMENT OF FIELD‐SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, SORPTIVITY, AND THE α‐PARAMETER USING THE GUELPH PERMEAMETER , 1985 .

[139]  T. Heimovaara.  Comments on “Time Domain Reflectometry Measurements of Water Content and Electrical Conductivity of Layered Soil Columns” , 1992 .

[140]  F. Ulaby,et al.  Microwave Dielectric Behavior of Wet Soil-Part II: Dielectric Mixing Models , 1985, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing.

[141]  Charles Wang Wai Ng,et al.  Performance of an unsaturated expansive soil slope subjected to artificial rainfall infiltration , 2003 .

[142]  Dani Or,et al.  Effects of Maxwell‐Wagner polarization on soil complex dielectric permittivity under variable temperature and electrical conductivity , 2006 .

[143]  Shmulik P. Friedman,et al.  Statistical Mixing Model for the Apparent Dielectric Constant of Unsaturated Porous Media , 1997 .

[144]  T. J. Dean.  The IH capacitance probe for measurement of soil water content , 1994 .

[145]  N. Livingston,et al.  Remote diode shorting improves measurement of soil water by time domain reflectometry. , 1992 .

[146]  C. Craig,et al.  Advances In Site Investigation Practice , 1996 .

[147]  D. Or,et al.  Temperature effects on soil bulk dielectric permittivity measured by time domain reflectometry: A physical model , 1999 .