Approval of equal rights and gender differences in well-being

Women earn less than men but are not less satisfied with life. This paper explores whether norms regarding the appropriate pay for women compared to men may explain these findings. We find that the gender wage gap is smaller where a larger fraction of the citizenry has voted in favor of equal pay. We also find that employed women are less (not more) satisfied with life in liberal communities where the gender wage gap is smaller. These findings suggest that norms regarding the appropriate relative pay of women compared to men are shaping gender differences in well-being.

[1]  Christian Ewerhart,et al.  Liquidity, Information, and the Overnight Rate , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[2]  Armin Falk,et al.  Distrust - the Hidden Cost of Control , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[3]  Preferences Scientific Kahneman, Daniel, and Amos Tversky. , 1982 .

[4]  Rebecca M. Blank,et al.  Race and gender in the labor market , 1999 .

[5]  Aleksander Berentsen,et al.  On the Friedman Rule in Search Models with Divisible Money , 2003 .

[6]  Sandra E. Black,et al.  The Division of Spoils: Rent-Sharing and Discrimination in a Regulated Industry , 2001 .

[7]  R. Oaxaca,et al.  Sex Differences in Pay in a 'New Monopsony' Model of the Labor Market , 2005, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[8]  Faye J. Crosby,et al.  Relative deprivation and working women , 1982 .

[9]  Amihai Glazer,et al.  Initial Luck, Status-Seeking and Snowballs Lead to Corporate Success and Failure , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[10]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Gender differences in well-being. , 1999 .

[11]  B. Major,et al.  Social Comparisons and Contentment , 1994 .

[12]  Alfonso Sousa-Poza,et al.  Taking Another Look at the Gender/Job‐Satisfaction Paradox , 2000 .

[13]  Matthias Benz,et al.  The Value of Autonomy: Evidence from the Self-Employed in 23 Countries , 2004 .

[14]  David Laibson,et al.  Experienced Utility and Objective Happiness: A Moment-Based Approach , 2001 .

[15]  Armin Falk,et al.  It's All About Connections: Evidence on Network Formation , 2003 .

[16]  Francine D. Blau,et al.  Understanding International Differences in the Gender Pay Gap , 2001, Journal of Labor Economics.

[17]  A. Sousa-Poza Gender differences in job satisfaction in Great Britain, 1991–2000: permanent or transitory? , 2003 .

[18]  Gabriele Camera,et al.  The distribution of money and prices in an equilibrium with lotteries , 2004 .

[19]  Bodo Vogt,et al.  Competitive nash equilibria and two period fund separation , 2003 .

[20]  G. Becker,et al.  The Economic Approach to Human Behavior , 1978 .

[21]  Armin Falk,et al.  The Success of Job Applications: A New Approach to Program Evaluation , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[22]  H. Levy,et al.  Prospect theory and the CAPM : a contradiction or coexistence? , 2003 .

[23]  Volker Grossmann,et al.  How to Promote R&D-Based Growth? Public Education Expenditure on Scientists and Engineers Versus R&D Subsidies , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[24]  Are Women Asking for Low Wages ?-Individual Wage Bargaining and Gender Wage Differentials , 2003 .

[25]  A. Ichino,et al.  Clean Evidence on Peer Pressure , 2003, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[26]  B. Frey,et al.  Social Comparisons and Pro-social Behavior: Testing "Conditional Cooperation" in a Field Experiment , 2004 .

[27]  B. Frey,et al.  Valuing Public Goods: The Life Satisfaction Approach , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[28]  B. Major,et al.  Two Routes to Eliminating Gender Differences in Personal Entitlement: Social Comparisons and Performance Evaluations , 1992 .

[29]  B. Frey,et al.  Corporate Governance: What Can We Learn from Public Governance? , 2006 .

[30]  Bart Cockx,et al.  The Exhaustion of Unemployment Benefits in Belgium: Does it Enhance the Probability of Employment? , 2004 .

[31]  T. Bewley Why Wages Don't Fall during a Recession , 1999 .

[32]  A. Tversky,et al.  Prospect Theory : An Analysis of Decision under Risk Author ( s ) : , 2007 .

[33]  D. McFarlin,et al.  Overworked and underpaid: on the nature of gender differences in personal entitlement. , 1984, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[34]  Pierre Mohnen,et al.  An Empirically-Based Taxonomy of Dutch Manufacturing: Innovation Policy Implications , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[35]  M. Gerfin,et al.  The unequal distribution of unequal pay – An empirical analysis of the gender wage gap in Switzerland , 2001 .

[36]  Klaus Reiner Schenk-Hoppé,et al.  Markets Do Not Select for a Liquidity Preference as Behavior Towards Risk , 2002 .

[37]  L. Messé,et al.  Sex differences in the allocation of pay. , 1979 .

[38]  E. Fehr,et al.  Fairness and Retaliation: The Economics of Reciprocity , 2000, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[39]  Bruno S. Frey,et al.  Does Marriage Make People Happy, or Do Happy People Get Married? , 2005 .

[40]  Lorenzo Cappellari,et al.  Modelling Low Pay Transition Probabilities, Accounting for Panel Attrition, Non-Response, and Initial Conditions , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[41]  Ernst Fehr,et al.  Is Strong Reciprocity a Maladaptation? On the Evolutionary Foundations of Human Altruism , 2003 .

[42]  Ernst Fehr,et al.  A Nationwide Laboratory Examining Trust and Trustworthiness by Integrating Behavioural Experiments into Representative Surveys , 2002, Journal of Contextual Economics – Schmollers Jahrbuch.

[43]  A. Tversky,et al.  Choices, Values, and Frames , 2000 .

[44]  Robert Dur,et al.  Politicians’ motivation, political culture, and electoral competition , 2004 .

[45]  Hermann Garbers Agents' Rationality and the Chf/Usd Exchange Rate Part Ii , 2003 .

[46]  B. Frey,et al.  How to Fight Terrorism: Alternatives to Deterrence , 2003 .

[47]  Alan Manning,et al.  The Real Thin Theory: Monopsony in Modern Labour Markets , 2003 .

[48]  S. Webb The Alleged Differences in the Wages Paid to Men and to Women for Similar Work , 1891 .

[49]  Marie Wade Women and Salary Negotiation: The Costs of Self-Advocacy , 2001 .

[50]  Rudolf Winter-Ebmer,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of the International Gender Wage Gap , 2003, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[51]  Aleksander Berentsen,et al.  Friedman Meets Hosios: Efficiency in Search Models of Money , 2004 .

[52]  Klaus M. Schmidt,et al.  The Role of Equality, Efficiency, and Rawlsian Motives in Social Preferences: A Reply to Engelmann and Strobel , 2004 .

[53]  Linda Babcock,et al.  Women Don't Ask , 2003 .

[54]  Robert Dur,et al.  Incentives and Workers Motivation in the Public Sector , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[55]  A. Oswald,et al.  Satisfaction and comparison income , 1996 .

[56]  Matthias Benz,et al.  Being Independent is a Great Thing: Subjective Evaluations of Self-Employment and Hierarchy , 2003, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[57]  H. Vollebergh,et al.  Tax Competition Under Minimum Rates: The Case of European Diesel Excises , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[58]  Heather Antecol NORC at the University of Chicago The University of Chicago Gender as an Impediment to Labor Market Success : Why Do Young Women Report Greater Harm ? , 2013 .

[59]  J. Phelan The paradox of the contented female worker: an assessment of alternative explanations , 1994 .

[60]  Bruno S. Frey,et al.  Yes, Managers Should Be Paid Like Bureaucrats , 2005, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[61]  Thorsten Hens,et al.  Limits to Arbitrage When Market Participation is Restricted , 2003 .

[62]  B. Frey,et al.  Direct Democracy for Transition Countries , 2003 .

[63]  Andreas Wagener,et al.  The Invisible Hand Plays Dice: Eventualities in Religious Markets , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[64]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Well-being : the foundations of hedonic psychology , 1999 .

[65]  Alois Stutzer,et al.  The Role of Income Aspirations in Individual Happiness , 2003 .

[66]  B. Frey 'Just Forget it' Memory Distortion as Bounded Rationality , 2004 .

[67]  B. Frey,et al.  What Can Economists Learn from Happiness Research? , 2001, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[68]  Anders Björklund,et al.  Is There a Glass Ceiling in Sweden? , 2001, Journal of Labor Economics.

[69]  B. Frey,et al.  Corporate Governance for Crooks? The Case for Corporate Virtue , 2003 .

[70]  Frederick van der Ploeg,et al.  The Welfare State, Redistribution and the Economy, Reciprocal Altruism, Consumer Rivalry and Second Best , 2004 .

[71]  Ben Jann Lohngerechtigkeit und Geschlechterdiskriminierung: Experimentelle Evidenz , 2003 .

[72]  J. Mayer,et al.  Existence of Sunspot Equilibria and Uniqueness of Spot Market Equilibria: The Case of Intrinsically Complete Markets , 2004 .

[73]  A. Stutzer,et al.  The Role of Social Work Norms in Job Searching and Subjective Well-Being , 2003, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[74]  Alfons J. Weichenrieder,et al.  On the Economics of Bottle Deposits , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[75]  H. Levy,et al.  Two Paradigms and Nobel Prizes in Economics: A Contradiction or Coexistence? , 2011 .

[76]  Jean-Robert Tyran,et al.  Limited Rationality and Strategic Interaction - the Impact of the Strategic Environment on Nominal Inertia , 2007 .

[77]  P. Kuhn Sex Discrimination in Labor Markets: The Role of Statistical Evidence: Reply , 1990 .

[78]  M. Pesaran General diagnostic tests for cross-sectional dependence in panels , 2004, Empirical Economics.

[79]  Stephen B. Jarrell,et al.  Gender Wage Discrimination Bias? A Meta-Regression Analysis , 1998 .

[80]  B. Frey,et al.  Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well-Being , 2003 .

[81]  Rebecca M. Blank,et al.  Chapter 48 Race and gender in the labor market , 1999 .

[82]  Heterogeneity, Local Information, and Global Interaction , 2004 .

[83]  Christian Ewerhart,et al.  Signaling, Globality, and the Intuitive Criterion , 2004 .

[84]  Francine D. Blau,et al.  The Gender Earnings Gap: Learning from International Comparisons , 1992 .

[85]  U. Fischbacher,et al.  Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization Fairness, Errors and the Power of Competition , 2022 .

[86]  U. Fischbacher,et al.  Living in Two Neighborhoods - Social Interactions in the Lab , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[87]  George A. Akerlof,et al.  Economics and Identity , 2000 .

[88]  Alice F. Stuhlmacher,et al.  GENDER DIFFERENCES IN NEGOTIATION OUTCOME: A META‐ANALYSIS , 1999 .

[89]  Anthony Clunies‐Ross Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well‐being , 2002 .

[90]  Ngo Van Long,et al.  International Trade and Cultural Diversity: A Model of Preference Selection , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[91]  When Does Gender Matter in Negotiation , 2002 .

[92]  A. Clark Job Satisfaction and Gender. Why are Women so Happy at Work , 1997 .

[93]  Harris Schlesinger,et al.  Adverse Selection in an Insurance Market with Government-Guaranteed Subsistence Levels , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[94]  Stephan Meier,et al.  Do Business Students Make Good Citizens? , 2003 .

[95]  Alois Stutzer,et al.  Direct Democracy: Designing a Living Constitution , 2003 .

[96]  Reto Foellmi,et al.  Inequality, Market Power, and Product Diversity , 2003 .

[97]  G. Jasso,et al.  Double standards in just earnings for male and female workers , 1997 .

[98]  A. Woodland,et al.  Measuring Tax Efficiency: A Tax Optimality Index , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[99]  Jan C. van Ours,et al.  Hours of Work and Gender Identity: Does Part-Time Work Make the Family Happier? , 2005, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[100]  E. Giorgi Evolutionary Portfolio Selection With Liquidity Shocks , 2008 .

[101]  James W. Hughes,et al.  Sex Discrimination in Labor Markets: The Role of Statistical Evidence: Comment , 1990 .

[102]  E. Fehr,et al.  The Hidden Costs and Returns of Incentives - Trust and Trustworthiness Among CEOS , 2004 .

[103]  B. Frey,et al.  Matching Donations: Subsidizing Charitable Giving in a Field Experiment , 2004 .

[104]  Andrew P. Meyer,et al.  That Elusive Elasticity: A Long-Panel Approach to Estimating the Capital-Labor Substitution Elasticity , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[105]  S. Solnick Gender differences in the ultimatum game , 2001 .

[106]  Stephan Meier,et al.  Is Volunteering Rewarding in Itself? , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[107]  Thomas A. E. Fuchs,et al.  What accounts for international differences in student performance? A re-examination using PISA data , 2004, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[108]  Alois Stutzer,et al.  Introducing Procedural Utility: Not Only What, But Also How Matters , 2002 .

[109]  Armin Falk,et al.  Charitable Giving as a Gift Exchange Evidence from a Field Experiment , 2003, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[110]  Agents' Rationality and the Chf/Usd Exchange Rate Part 1 , 2003 .

[111]  Aleksander Berentsen,et al.  Fraudulent Accounting and Other Doping Games , 2003 .

[112]  Aldo Rustichini,et al.  Gender and competition at a young age , 2004 .

[113]  Reto Foellmi,et al.  Who Gains from Non-Collusive Corruption? , 2003 .

[114]  S. Blomberg,et al.  How Much Does Violence Tax Trade? , 2004, The Review of Economics and Statistics.

[115]  Mark P. Schindler Rumors in Financial Markets: Survey on how they Evolve, Spread and are Traded on , 2003 .