Visual and Cognitive Predictors of Performance on Brake Reaction Test: Salisbury Eye Evaluation Driving Study

Objectives: Concern for driving safety has prompted research into understanding factors related to performance. Brake reaction speed (BRS), the speed with which persons react to a sudden change in driving conditions, is a measure of performance. Our aim is to determine the visual, cognitive, and physical factors predicting BRS in a population sample of 1425 older drivers. Methods: The Maryland Department of Motor Vehicles roster of persons aged 67–87 and residing in Salisbury, MD, was used for recruitment of the study population. Procedures included the following: habitual, binocular visual acuity using ETDRS charts, contrast sensitivity using a Pelli-Robson chart, visual fields assessed with a 81-point screening Humphrey field at a single intensity threshold, and a questionnaire to ascertain medical conditions. Cognitive status was assessed using a standard battery of tests for attention, memory, visuo-spatial, and scanning. BRS was assessed using a computer-driven device that measured separately the initial reaction speed (IRS) (from light change to red until removing foot from accelerator) and physical response speed (PRS) (removing foot from accelerator to full brake depression). Five trial times were averaged, and time was converted to speed. Results: The median brake reaction time varied from 384 to 5688 milliseconds. Age, gender, and cognition predicted total BRS, a non-informative result as there are two distinct parts to the task. Once separated, decrease in IRS was associated with low scores on cognitive factors and missing points on the visual field. A decrease in PRS was associated with having three or more physical complaints related to legs and feet, and poorer vision search. Vision was not related to PRS. Conclusion: We have demonstrated the importance of segregating the speeds for the two tasks involved in brake reaction. Only the IRS depends on vision. Persons in good physical condition may perform poorly on brake reaction tests if their vision or cognition is compromised.

[1]  N Stamatiadis,et al.  Trends in highway safety: effects of an aging population on accident propensity. , 1995, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[2]  L. Evans.  Risk of fatality from physical trauma versus sex and age. , 1988, The Journal of trauma.

[3]  M. Sloane,et al.  Visual processing impairment and risk of motor vehicle crash among older adults. , 1998, JAMA.

[4]  K. Ball,et al.  Visual attention problems as a predictor of vehicle crashes in older drivers. , 1993, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[5]  J. Wood,et al.  Age and Visual Impairment Decrease Driving Performance as Measured on a Closed-Road Circuit , 2002, Hum. Factors.

[6]  Anne T McCartt,et al.  Cell Phones and Driving: Review of Research , 2006, Traffic injury prevention.

[7]  A. Bachu.  Current Population Reports , 1999 .

[8]  N L Schweitzer.  A FIELD STUDY ON BRAKING RESPONSES DURING DRIVING (II). , 1995 .

[9]  Cynthia Owsley Msph,et al.  Association Between Visual Attention and Mobility in Older Adults , 2004 .

[10]  Bernard R. Rosner,et al.  Fundamentals of Biostatistics. , 1992 .

[11]  Heikki Summala,et al.  Driving performance of drivers with impaired central visual field acuity. , 2002, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[12]  D. Shinar,et al.  Effects of uncertainty, transmission type, driver age and gender on brake reaction and movement time. , 2002, Journal of safety research.

[13]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  Effects of tianeptine and mianserin on car driving skills , 2001, Psychopharmacology.

[14]  C. Owsley,et al.  Association Between Visual Attention and Mobility in Older Adults , 2004, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[15]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  Effects of fexofenadine and hydroxyzine on brake reaction time during car‐driving with cellular phone use , 2005, Human psychopharmacology.

[16]  John M. Watts,et al.  Further Investigations of Movement Time between Brake and Accelerator Pedals in Automobiles , 1970 .

[17]  J. Ramaekers,et al.  MDMA and alcohol effects, combined and alone, on objective and subjective measures of actual driving performance and psychomotor function , 2006, Psychopharmacology.

[18]  E. Peli,et al.  On-Road Driving with Moderate Visual Field Loss , 2005, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[19]  E. F. P. M. Vuurman,et al.  Effects of desloratadine, diphenhydramine, and placebo on driving performance and psychomotor performance measurements , 2004, European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.

[20]  P A Hancock,et al.  The distraction effects of phone use during a crucial driving maneuver. , 2003, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[21]  Leonard Evans.  RISK OF FATALITY FROM PHYSICAL TRAUMA VERSUS AGE AND SEX , 1986 .

[22]  Kristen E Beede,et al.  Engrossed in conversation: the impact of cell phones on simulated driving performance. , 2006, Accident; analysis and prevention.