Emotion and motivation I: defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing.

Emotional reactions are organized by underlying motivational states--defensive and appetitive--that have evolved to promote the survival of individuals and species. Affective responses were measured while participants viewed pictures with varied emotional and neutral content. Consistent with the motivational hypothesis, reports of the strongest emotional arousal, largest skin conductance responses, most pronounced cardiac deceleration, and greatest modulation of the startle reflex occurred when participants viewed pictures depicting threat, violent death, and erotica. Moreover, reflex modulation and conductance change varied with arousal, whereas facial patterns were content specific. The findings suggest that affective responses serve different functions-mobilization for action, attention, and social communication-and reflect the motivational system that is engaged, its intensity of activation, and the specific emotional context.

[1]  C. Darwin.  The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals , .

[2]  J. Knott.  The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory , 1951 .

[3]  C. Osgood,et al.  The Measurement of Meaning , 1958 .

[4]  A. Guyton,et al.  Textbook of Medical Physiology , 1961 .

[5]  E. N. Sokolov,et al.  Perception and the Conditioned Reflex , 1965 .

[6]  S. Ochs.  Integrative Activity of the Brain: An Interdisciplinary Approach , 1968 .

[7]  Forrest W. Young.  Computer program abstracts , 1968 .

[8]  R. Hare,et al.  Autonomic responses to affective visual stimulation. , 1970, Psychophysiology.

[9]  P. Ekman.  Darwin and Facial Expression , 1973 .

[10]  J. Russell,et al.  An approach to environmental psychology , 1974 .

[11]  Autonomic responses to affective visual stimuli. , 1975, Psychophysiology.

[12]  R. Klorman,et al.  Individual differences in fear and autonomic reactions to affective stimulation. , 1977, Psychophysiology.

[13]  H. Kimmel,et al.  The Orienting Reflex in Humans , 2021 .

[14]  Michela Gallagher,et al.  Amygdala central nucleus lesions: Effect on heart rate conditioning in the rabbit , 1979, Physiology & Behavior.

[15]  G. Schwartz,et al.  Facial muscle patterning and subjective experience during affective imagery: sex differences. , 1980, Psychophysiology.

[16]  T. A. Williams,et al.  Technology in mental health care delivery systems , 1980 .

[17]  P. Lang.  Behavioral treatment and bio-behavioral assessment: computer applications , 1980 .

[18]  P. Obrist.  Cardiovascular Psychophysiology: A Perspective , 1981 .

[19]  F. Masterson,et al.  The defense motivation system: A theory of avoidance behavior , 1982, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[20]  I. Maltzman,et al.  Stimulus significance and bilateral SCRs to potentially phobic pictures. , 1984, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[21]  P. Lang,et al.  Individual differences in autonomic response: conditioned association or conditioned fear? , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[22]  Craig A. Smith,et al.  Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[23]  A. J. Fridlund,et al.  Guidelines for human electromyographic research. , 1986, Psychophysiology.

[24]  Windy Dryden,et al.  Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change , 1987, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[25]  J. Thayer,et al.  The continuing problem of false positives in repeated measures ANOVA in psychophysiology: a multivariate solution. , 1987, Psychophysiology.

[26]  P. Lang,et al.  The startle probe response: a new measure of emotion? , 1988, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[27]  P. Lang,et al.  Affective judgment and psychophysiological response: Dimensional covariation in the evaluation of pictorial stimuli. , 1989 .

[28]  D. Blanchard,et al.  Attack and defense in rodents as ethoexperimental models for the study of emotion , 1989, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry.

[29]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  A psychometric study of surface electrode placements for facial electromyographic recording: I. The brow and cheek muscle regions. , 1989, Psychophysiology.

[30]  Joseph E LeDoux.  Information flow from sensation to emotion: Plasticity in the neural computation of stimulus value. , 1990 .

[31]  P. Ekman,et al.  The Duchenne smile: emotional expression and brain physiology. II. , 1990, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[32]  M. Bradley,et al.  Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. , 1990, Psychological review.

[33]  M. Gabriel,et al.  Learning and Computational Neuroscience: Foundations of Adaptive Networks , 1990 .

[34]  John T. Cacioppo,et al.  Unobservable Facial Actions and Emotion , 1992 .

[35]  M. Bradley,et al.  Emotion, novelty, and the startle reflex: habituation in humans. , 1993, Behavioral neuroscience.

[36]  H. Ursin,et al.  Psychobiology of coping and defence strategies. , 1993, Neuropsychobiology.

[37]  M. Bradley,et al.  Pictures as prepulse: attention and emotion in startle modification. , 1993, Psychophysiology.

[38]  M. Bradley,et al.  Looking at pictures: affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions. , 1993, Psychophysiology.

[39]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates. , 1994 .

[40]  M. Bradley,et al.  Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential. , 1994, Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry.

[41]  M. Fanselow.  Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear , 1994, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[42]  P. Lang.  The emotion probe. Studies of motivation and attention. , 1995, The American psychologist.

[43]  L. Lundqvist,et al.  FACIAL EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAGIOUS , 1995 .

[44]  B. Parkinson,et al.  Emotion and motivation , 1995 .

[45]  M. Bradley,et al.  Probing picture perception: activation and emotion. , 1996, Psychophysiology.

[46]  M. Bradley,et al.  Motivated attention: Affect, activation, and action. , 1997 .

[47]  M. Bradley,et al.  Probe P3 and blinks: two measures of affective startle modulation. , 1997, Psychophysiology.

[48]  Peter J. Lang,et al.  Attention and Orienting : Sensory and Motivational Processes , 1997 .

[49]  B. Cuthbert,et al.  Fear and the startle reflex: blink modulation and autonomic response patterns in animal and mutilation fearful subjects. , 1997, Psychophysiology.

[50]  M. Bradley,et al.  Probing affective pictures: attended startle and tone probes. , 1998, Psychophysiology.

[51]  M. Bradley,et al.  Startle Modification: Affect and the Startle Reflex , 1999 .

[52]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components: Form follows function. , 1999 .

[53]  M. Bradley,et al.  Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW): Instruction Manual and Affective Ratings , 1999 .

[54]  P. Lang,et al.  International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Instruction Manual and Affective Ratings (Tech. Rep. No. A-4) , 1999 .

[55]  L. Nadel,et al.  Cognitive neuroscience of emotion , 2000 .

[56]  N. Kalin,et al.  Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: perspectives from affective neuroscience. , 2000, Psychological bulletin.

[57]  M. Bradley,et al.  Measuring emotion: Behavior, feeling, and physiology , 2000 .

[58]  M. Bradley,et al.  Psychophysiological Responses of Sport Fans , 2000 .

[59]  E. Rolls.  Précis of The brain and emotion. , 2000, The Behavioral and brain sciences.

[60]  M. Bradley,et al.  Fleeting images: a new look at early emotion discrimination. , 2001, Psychophysiology.

[61]  M. Bradley,et al.  Emotion and motivation II: sex differences in picture processing. , 2001, Emotion.

[62]  M. Bradley,et al.  Activation of the visual cortex in motivated attention. , 2003, Behavioral neuroscience.