Bubble population phenomena in acoustic cavitation

Abstract Theoretical treatments of the dynamics of a single bubble in a pressure field have been undertaken for many decades. Although there is still scope for progress, there now exists a solid theoretical basis for the dynamics of a single bubble. This has enabled useful classifications to be established, including the distinction between stable cavitation (where a bubble pulsates for many cycles) and transient cavitation (where the bubble grows extensively over time-scales of the order of the acoustic cycle, and then undergoes an energetic collapse and subsequent rebound and then, potentially, either fragmentation, decaying oscillation or a repeat performance). Departures from sphericity, such as shape and surface oscillations and jetting, have also been characterized. However, in most practical systems involving high-energy cavitation (such as those involving sonochemical, biological and erosive effects), the bubbles do not behave as the isolated entities modelled by this single-bubble theory: the cavitational effect may be dominated by the characteristics of the entire bubble population, which may influence, and be influenced by, the sound field. The well established concepts that have resulted from the single-bubble theory must be reinterpreted in teh light of the bubble population, an appreciation of population mechanisms being necessary to apply our understanding of single-bubble theory to many practical applications of ‘power’ ultrasound. Even at a most basic level these single-bubble theories describe the response of the bubble to the local sound field at the position of the bubble, and that pressure field will be influenced by the way sound is scattered by neighbouring bubbles. The influence of the bubble population will often go further, a non-uniform sound field creating an inhomogeneous bubble distribution. Such a distribution can scatter, channel and focus ultrasonic beams, can acoustically shield regions of the sample, and elsewhere localize the cavitational activity to discrete ‘hot spots’. As a result, portions of the sample may undergo intense sonochemical activity, degassing, erosion, etc., whilst other areas remain relatively unaffected. Techniques exist to control such situations where they are desirable, and to eliminate this localization where a more uniform treatment of the sample is desired.