T cell vaccines for microbial infections

Vaccination, or the deliberate induction of protective immunity by administering nonpathogenic forms of a microbe or its antigens to induce a memory immune response, is the world's most cost-effective medical procedure for preventing morbidity and mortality caused by infectious disease. Historically, most vaccines have worked by eliciting long-lived plasma cells. These cells produce antibodies that limit disease by neutralizing a toxin or blocking the spread of the infectious agent. For these 'B cell vaccines,' the immunological marker, or correlate, for protection is the titer of protective antibodies. With the discovery of HIV/AIDS, vaccine development has been confronted by an agent that is not easily blocked by antibody. To overcome this, researchers who are developing HIV/AIDS vaccines have turned to the elicitation of cellular immunity, or 'T cell vaccines,' which recognize and kill infected cells.

[1]  W. Heneine,et al.  Multiprotein HIV type 1 clade B DNA/MVA vaccine: construction, safety, and immunogenicity in Macaques. , 2004, AIDS research and human retroviruses.

[2]  C. Hallahan,et al.  HIV-specific CD8+ T cell proliferation is coupled to perforin expression and is maintained in nonprogressors , 2002, Nature Immunology.

[3]  S. Kostense,et al.  Neutralizing Antibodies and CD8+ T Lymphocytes both Contribute to Immunity to Adenovirus Serotype 5 Vaccine Vectors , 2004, Journal of Virology.

[4]  R. Welsh,et al.  Immunological memory to viral infections. , 2004, Annual review of immunology.

[5]  P. Earl,et al.  Different Patterns of Immune Responses but Similar Control of a Simian-Human Immunodeficiency Virus 89.6P Mucosal Challenge by Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara (MVA) and DNA/MVA Vaccines , 2002, Journal of Virology.

[6]  S. Jameson,et al.  Multiple Choices , 2002, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[7]  Rustom Antia,et al.  Lineage relationship and protective immunity of memory CD8 T cell subsets , 2003, Nature Immunology.

[8]  K. Bojang,et al.  Safety and immunogenicity of DNA/modified vaccinia virus ankara malaria vaccination in African adults. , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[9]  J. Schmitz,et al.  Vaccine Protection Against Functional CTL Abnormalities in Simian Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Rhesus Monkeys1 , 2002, The Journal of Immunology.

[10]  S. Rowland-Jones,et al.  Skewed maturation of memory HIV-specific CD8 T lymphocytes , 2001, Nature.

[11]  Steven M. Wolinsky,et al.  Eventual AIDS vaccine failure in a rhesus monkey by viral escape from cytotoxic T lymphocytes , 2002, Nature.

[12]  D. Weiner,et al.  First human trial of a DNA-based vaccine for treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: safety and host response. , 1998, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[13]  S. Man.  Human cytotoxic T-cell memory: long-lived responses to vaccinia virus , 1996 .

[14]  D. Busch,et al.  Overexpression of IL-15 In Vivo Increases Antigen-Driven Memory CD8+ T Cells Following a Microbe Exposure1 , 2002, The Journal of Immunology.

[15]  P. Marrack,et al.  Control of T cell viability. , 2003, Annual review of immunology.

[16]  M. Plebanski,et al.  Induction of CD8+ T cells using heterologous prime‐boost immunisation strategies , 1999, Immunological reviews.

[17]  P. Earl,et al.  Control of a mucosal challenge and prevention of AIDS by a multiprotein DNA/MVA vaccine. , 2002, Vaccine.

[18]  Hao Shen,et al.  Requirement for CD4 T Cell Help in Generating Functional CD8 T Cell Memory , 2003, Science.

[19]  M. Bevan,et al.  Defective CD8 T Cell Memory Following Acute Infection Without CD4 T Cell Help , 2003, Science.

[20]  B. Moss,et al.  Signature for Long-Term Vaccine-Mediated Control of a Simian and Human Immunodeficiency Virus 89.6P Challenge: Stable Low-Breadth and Low-Frequency T-Cell Response Capable of Coproducing Gamma Interferon and Interleukin-2 , 2005, Journal of Virology.

[21]  B. Walker,et al.  Sustained Dysfunction of Antiviral CD8+ T Lymphocytes after Infection with Hepatitis C Virus , 2001, Journal of Virology.

[22]  P. Earl,et al.  Critical Role for Env as well as Gag-Pol in Control of a Simian-Human Immunodeficiency Virus 89.6P Challenge by a DNA Prime/Recombinant Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Vaccine , 2002, Journal of Virology.

[23]  C. Pitcher,et al.  Determination of antigen-specific memory/effector CD4+ T cell frequencies by flow cytometry: evidence for a novel, antigen-specific homeostatic mechanism in HIV-associated immunodeficiency. , 1997, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[24]  Persistent numbers of tetramer+ CD8(+) T cells, but loss of interferon-gamma+ HIV-specific T cells during progression to AIDS. , 2002, Blood.

[25]  P. Nigam,et al.  Long-Lived Poxvirus Immunity, Robust CD4 Help, and Better Persistence of CD4 than CD8 T Cells , 2004, Journal of Virology.

[26]  F. Sallusto,et al.  Proliferation and differentiation potential of human CD8+ memory T-cell subsets in response to antigen or homeostatic cytokines. , 2003, Blood.

[27]  E. Wherry,et al.  Therapeutic use of IL-2 to enhance antiviral T-cell responses in vivo , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[28]  H. McShane,et al.  Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing antigen 85A boosts BCG-primed and naturally acquired antimycobacterial immunity in humans , 2004, Nature Medicine.

[29]  J. Altman,et al.  Immediate Early Effector Functions of Virus-Specific CD8+CCR7+ Memory Cells in Humans Defined by HLA and CC Chemokine Ligand 19 Tetramers1 , 2003, The Journal of Immunology.

[30]  A. Sette,et al.  Epitope-based vaccines: an update on epitope identification, vaccine design and delivery. , 2003, Current opinion in immunology.

[31]  D. Montefiori,et al.  Vaccine protection by a triple deletion mutant of simian immunodeficiency virus , 1996, Journal of virology.

[32]  Philip J. R. Goulder,et al.  Phenotypic Analysis of Antigen-Specific T Lymphocytes , 1996, Science.

[33]  E. Wherry,et al.  Vaccines: Effector and memory T-cell differentiation: implications for vaccine development , 2002, Nature Reviews Immunology.

[34]  R. Ahmed,et al.  A Role for Perforin in Downregulating T-Cell Responses during Chronic Viral Infection , 1999, Journal of Virology.

[35]  M. Bevan,et al.  CD4+ T cells are required for the maintenance, not programming, of memory CD8+ T cells after acute infection , 2004, Nature Immunology.

[36]  J. Sprent,et al.  Interleukin (IL)-15 and IL-7 Jointly Regulate Homeostatic Proliferation of Memory Phenotype CD8+ Cells but Are Not Required for Memory Phenotype CD4+ Cells , 2002, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[37]  J. Harty,et al.  Regulation of antigen-specific CD8+ T cell homeostasis by perforin and interferon-gamma. , 2000, Science.

[38]  R. Ahmed,et al.  Costimulation in antiviral immunity: differential requirements for CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses. , 2000, Current opinion in immunology.

[39]  S. Hansen,et al.  Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[40]  Philip J. R. Goulder,et al.  HIV and SIV CTL escape: implications for vaccine design , 2004, Nature Reviews Immunology.

[41]  V. Maino,et al.  Normal human CD4+ memory T cells display broad heterogeneity in their activation threshold for cytokine synthesis. , 1998, Journal of immunology.

[42]  P. Moss,et al.  Memory T Cells Constitute a Subset of the Human CD8+CD45RA+ Pool with Distinct Phenotypic and Migratory Characteristics1 , 2001, The Journal of Immunology.

[43]  E. Remmerswaal,et al.  Proliferation Requirements of Cytomegalovirus-Specific, Effector-Type Human CD8+ T Cells1 , 2002, The Journal of Immunology.

[44]  A. Moore,et al.  Progress in DNA‐based heterologous prime‐boost immunization strategies for malaria , 2004, Immunological reviews.

[45]  New hope for AIDS vaccine. , 2003, Lancet.

[46]  J. Falloon,et al.  Vaccination in Humans Generates Broad T Cell Cytokine Responses1 , 2004, The Journal of Immunology.

[47]  A. Craiu,et al.  Augmentation of immune responses to HIV-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus DNA vaccines by IL-2/Ig plasmid administration in rhesus monkeys. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[48]  I. Khan,et al.  IL-15 prolongs the duration of CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity in mice infected with a vaccine strain of Toxoplasma gondii. , 1999, Journal of immunology.

[49]  M. Brown,et al.  Inhibition of HIV-1 infection by the beta-chemokine MDC. , 1997, Science.

[50]  Susan M. Kaech,et al.  Effector and memory T-cell differentiation: implications for vaccine development. Nat Rev Immunol. , 2002 .

[51]  J. Sodroski,et al.  A chimeric simian/human immunodeficiency virus expressing a primary patient human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolate env causes an AIDS-like disease after in vivo passage in rhesus monkeys , 1996, Journal of virology.

[52]  B. Moss,et al.  Overcoming Immunity to a Viral Vaccine by DNA Priming before Vector Boosting , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[53]  Douglas D. Richman,et al.  HIV-Specific Cd8+ T Cells Produce Antiviral Cytokines but Are Impaired in Cytolytic Function , 2000, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[54]  T. Mak,et al.  Homeostatic regulation of CD8+ T cells by perforin , 1999, European journal of immunology.

[55]  David Gray,et al.  Immunological Memory and Protective Immunity: Understanding Their Relation , 1996, Science.

[56]  J. Levy,et al.  Controlling HIV pathogenesis: the role of the noncytotoxic anti-HIV response of CD8+ T cells. , 1996, Immunology today.

[57]  B. Pulendran.  Modulating vaccine responses with dendritic cells and Toll‐like receptors , 2004, Immunological reviews.

[58]  Antonio Lanzavecchia,et al.  Central memory and effector memory T cell subsets: function, generation, and maintenance. , 2004, Annual review of immunology.

[59]  R. Steinman,et al.  Dendritic cells and the control of immunity , 1998, Nature.

[60]  F. Ennis,et al.  Human cytotoxic T-cell memory: long-lived responses to vaccinia virus , 1996, Journal of virology.

[61]  B. Moss,et al.  DNA/MVA vaccine for HIV type 1: effects of codon-optimization and the expression of aggregates or virus-like particles on the immunogenicity of the DNA prime. , 2004, AIDS research and human retroviruses.

[62]  J. Harty,et al.  Regulation of CD8+ T Cells Undergoing Primary and Secondary Responses to Infection in the Same Host1 , 2003, The Journal of Immunology.

[63]  R. Welsh,et al.  Immunological Memory to Viral Infections1 , 2004 .

[64]  T. Monath,et al.  Chimeric flaviviruses: novel vaccines against dengue fever, tick-borne encephalitis, and Japanese encephalitis. , 2003, Advances in virus research.

[65]  Susan M. Kaech,et al.  Memory CD8+ T cell differentiation: initial antigen encounter triggers a developmental program in naïve cells , 2001, Nature Immunology.

[66]  N. Letvin.  Progress toward an HIV vaccine. , 2005, Annual review of medicine.

[67]  Urs Christen,et al.  CD4+ T cells are required for secondary expansion and memory in CD8+ T lymphocytes , 2003, Nature.

[68]  Z. Xiang,et al.  Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Specific Immune Responses in Primates upon Sequential Immunization with Adenoviral Vaccine Carriers of Human and Simian Serotypes , 2004, Journal of Virology.

[69]  E. Wherry,et al.  Differential Sensitivity of Naive and Memory CD8+ T Cells to Apoptosis in Vivo1 , 2002, The Journal of Immunology.

[70]  A. Simon,et al.  Control of viremia and prevention of clinical AIDS in rhesus monkeys by cytokine-augmented DNA vaccination. , 2000, Science.

[71]  A. Craiu,et al.  Augmentation and suppression of immune responses to an HIV-1 DNA vaccine by plasmid cytokine/Ig administration. , 1998, Journal of immunology.

[72]  P. Borrow,et al.  CD40L-deficient mice show deficits in antiviral immunity and have an impaired memory CD8+ CTL response , 1996, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[73]  Luis Villarreal,et al.  Cutting Edge: Long-Term B Cell Memory in Humans after Smallpox Vaccination 1 , 2003, The Journal of Immunology.

[74]  B. Walker,et al.  Analysis of Successful Immune Responses in Persons Infected with Hepatitis C Virus , 2000, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[75]  D. Weissman,et al.  Multifactorial nature of noncytolytic CD8+ T cell-mediated suppression of HIV replication: beta-chemokine-dependent and -independent effects. , 1997, AIDS research and human retroviruses.

[76]  T. Peto,et al.  Safety of DNA and modified vaccinia virus Ankara vaccines against liver-stage P. falciparum malaria in non-immune volunteers. , 2003, Vaccine.

[77]  J. Shiver,et al.  Recent advances in the development of HIV-1 vaccines using replication-incompetent adenovirus vectors. , 2004, Annual review of medicine.

[78]  B. Rocha,et al.  A Role for CD40 Expression on CD8+ T Cells in the Generation of CD8+ T Cell Memory , 2002, Science.

[79]  A. B. Lyons,et al.  Determination of lymphocyte division by flow cytometry. , 1994, Journal of immunological methods.

[80]  J. Sprent,et al.  T-cell proliferation in vivo and the role of cytokines. , 2000, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[81]  N. Pardigon,et al.  Role of co-stimulation in CD8+ T cell activation. , 1998, International immunology.

[82]  F. Sallusto,et al.  Two subsets of memory T lymphocytes with distinct homing potentials and effector functions , 1999, Nature.

[83]  E. Wherry,et al.  Viral Persistence Alters CD8 T-Cell Immunodominance and Tissue Distribution and Results in Distinct Stages of Functional Impairment , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[84]  D. Webster,et al.  Enhanced T-cell immunogenicity of plasmid DNA vaccines boosted by recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara in humans , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[85]  Wayne C Koff,et al.  HIV vaccine design and the neutralizing antibody problem , 2004, Nature Immunology.

[86]  D. Webster,et al.  Phase 1 evaluation of 3 highly immunogenic prime-boost regimens, including a 12-month reboosting vaccination, for malaria vaccination in Gambian men. , 2004, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[87]  L. Eisenlohr,et al.  High Levels of Epitope Are Attained Responses Rise Steadily Until Excessively Function of Increasing Epitope Expression : The Induction of Virus-Specific CTL as a , 1999 .

[88]  D. Montefiori,et al.  Recombinant poxvirus boosting of DNA-primed rhesus monkeys augments peak but not memory T lymphocyte responses. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[89]  A. Garzino-Demo,et al.  Inhibition of HIV-1 Infection by the β-Chemokine MDC , 1997 .

[90]  D. Richman,et al.  Memory CD8+ T cells vary in differentiation phenotype in different persistent virus infections , 2002, Nature Medicine.

[91]  Todd M. Allen,et al.  Induction of AIDS Virus-Specific CTL Activity in Fresh, Unstimulated Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes from Rhesus Macaques Vaccinated with a DNA Prime/Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Boost Regimen1 , 2000, The Journal of Immunology.

[92]  Henryk Mach,et al.  Replication-incompetent adenoviral vaccine vector elicits effective anti-immunodeficiency-virus immunity , 2002, Nature.