Effective Media Communication During Public Health Emergencies: A WHO Handbook

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. All reasonable precautions have been taken by the World Health Organization to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either express or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World Health Organization be liable for damages arising from its use. The named authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication. Acknowledgements This handbook has been drawn from a wide variety of sources, including articles by the above authors, and documents and articles produced by WHO Member States, regional offices and country offices. Special thanks are also given to the following individuals: Acknowledgement is also given to Anthony L Waddell for his expert editing of the text, as well as to Threefold Design Ltd for the design layout. i PREFACE In recent years public health agencies have considerably improved their ability to rapidly detect and respond to public health emergencies. At the same time, mechanisms for global cooperation and resource pooling have been greatly strengthened. Despite these advances, effectively communicating the threats posed by such emergencies and the actions needed during them remains a significant challenge. Such communication needs to be carefully planned and implemented as well as properly integrated with emergency management activities and operations. To communicate effectively through the media during a public health emergency, response managers must plan their communication strategies, integrate communicators into the most senior levels, provide transparent messages, and listen to the public's concerns. Emergency events therefore present a unique challenge to the internal media-relations capabilities of health agencies. Although such events are hard to predict, …

[1]  M. Bellis,et al.  Behind the mask. Journey through an epidemic: some observations of contrasting public health responses to SARS , 2003, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[2]  M. Douglas,et al.  Risk and Culture: An Essay on the Selection of Technological and Environmental Dangers , 1983 .

[3]  G. Rezza,et al.  SARS Epidemic in the Press , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[4]  Susan J. Robinson,et al.  Uncertain Science and Certain Deadlines: CDC Responses to the Media During the Anthrax Attacks of 2001 , 2003, Journal of health communication.

[5]  S. Krimsky,et al.  Social Theories of Risk , 1992 .

[6]  V. Smith,et al.  Risk communication and attitude change: Taiwan's national debate over nuclear power , 1990 .

[7]  Ortwin Renn,et al.  The Brent Spar Controversy: An Example of Risk Communication Gone Wrong , 1997 .

[8]  Geoff Royston,et al.  Personal paper: Risk language and dialects , 1997 .

[9]  K. Klepp,et al.  Exposure to HIV/AIDS information, AIDS knowledge, perceived risk and attitudes toward people with AIDS among primary school-children in northern Tanzania. , 1994, AIDS care.

[10]  C. Parvanta,et al.  Communicating Anthrax in 2001: A Comparison of CDC Information and Print Media Accounts , 2003, Journal of health communication.

[11]  V. Freimuth,et al.  Communicating the threat of emerging infections to the public. , 2000, Emerging infectious diseases.

[12]  Melissa L. Finucane,et al.  Risk Perceptions in Australia , 1996, Psychological Reports.

[13]  Roger E. Kasperson,et al.  Communicating risks to the public : international perspectives , 1991 .

[14]  L D Cohn,et al.  Adolescents' misinterpretation of health risk probability expressions. , 1995, Pediatrics.

[15]  Cynthia-Lou Coleman.  The Influence of Mass Media and Interpersonal Communication on Societal and Personal Risk Judgments , 1993 .

[16]  Len Ackland,et al.  Communicating Uncertainty: Media Coverage of New and Controversial Science , 2000 .

[17]  Fischhoff,et al.  Verbal and Numerical Expressions of Probability: "It's a Fifty-Fifty Chance" , 2000, Organizational behavior and human decision processes.

[18]  C. Dornan,et al.  Some problems in conceptualizing the issue of “science and the media” , 1990 .

[19]  A. Singhal,et al.  Enhancing the effectiveness of HIV/AIDS prevention programs targeted to unique population groups in Thailand: lessons learned from applying concepts of diffusion of innovation and social marketing. , 1998, Journal of health communication.

[20]  Interpretation and communication of the results of medical field investigations. , 1989, Journal of occupational medicine. : official publication of the Industrial Medical Association.

[21]  S. Watts,et al.  Schistosomiasis in two Nile delta villages: an anthropological perspective , 1997, Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH.

[22]  Elizabeth C. Hirschman,et al.  Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases , 1974, Science.

[23]  M. Allen,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns , 2000, Health education & behavior : the official publication of the Society for Public Health Education.

[24]  A. Tversky,et al.  Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk — Source link , 2007 .

[25]  B. Gelb,et al.  Using mass media communication for health promotion: results from a cancer center effort. , 1994, Hospital & health services administration.

[26]  B Fischhoff,et al.  Risk perception and communication unplugged: twenty years of process. , 1995, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[27]  William Leiss,et al.  Mad Cows and Mother's Milk: The Perils of Poor Risk Communication , 1997 .

[28]  J. Lau,et al.  Monitoring community responses to the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong: from day 10 to day 62 , 2003, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[29]  S. Dunwoody,et al.  Public Information Persons as Mediators between Scientists and Journalists , 1983 .

[30]  M. Ayish.  Risk Communication: A Cross-Cultural Study , 1991 .

[31]  A. Michael Noll,et al.  Crisis Communications: Lessons from September 11 , 2003 .

[32]  Barrie Gunter,et al.  The Media and Public Understanding of Biotechnology , 1999 .

[33]  J E Brody,et al.  Communicating cancer risk in print journalism. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Monographs.

[34]  M. J. Quadrel,et al.  Risk perception and communication , 2008 .

[35]  Stella R. Quah,et al.  Crisis Prevention and Management during SARS Outbreak, Singapore , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[36]  J. Lakey.  Informing the public about radiation--the messenger and the message: 1997 G. William Morgan lecture. , 1998, Health physics.

[37]  P Slovic,et al.  Informing and educating the public about risk. , 1986, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[38]  S. A. Nohrstedt.  The information crisis in Sweden after Chernobyl , 1991 .

[39]  A. Åstrøm,et al.  Perceptions of susceptibility to oral health hazards: a study of women in different cultures. , 1998, Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology.

[40]  David Parkinson,et al.  Risk: Analysis, perception and management. report of a Royal Society Study Group: Pp 201. The Royal Society. 1992. Paperback £15.50 ISBN 0 85403 467 6 , 1993 .

[41]  M. Lum,et al.  A Primer on health risk communication principles and practices , 1994 .

[42]  E. Huerta,et al.  Communicating health risk to ethnic groups: reaching Hispanics as a case study. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Monographs.

[43]  Bryan B. Whaley,et al.  Explaining illness : research, theory, and strategies , 1999 .

[44]  Vincent T. Covello,et al.  Risk communication, the West Nile virus epidemic, and bioterrorism: responding to the commnication challenges posed by the intentional or unintentional release of a pathogen in an urban setting , 2001, Journal of Urban Health.

[45]  W. Pollard,et al.  Public Perceptions of Information Sources Concerning Bioterrorism Before and After Anthrax Attacks: An Analysis of National Survey Data , 2003, Journal of health communication.

[46]  Anne F. Kittler,et al.  The Internet as a Vehicle to Communicate Health Information During a Public Health Emergency: A Survey Analysis Involving the Anthrax Scare of 2001 , 2004, Journal of medical Internet research.

[47]  M. Muskavitch,et al.  Limited Precision in Print Media Communication of West Nile Virus Risks , 2003 .

[48]  S. Melkote,et al.  Public communication campaigns in the destigmatization of leprosy: a comparative analysis of diffusion and participatory approaches. A case study in Gwalior, India. , 1998, Journal of health communication.

[49]  John C. Licciardone,et al.  Risk Communication and Public Health , 2000, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[50]  J. Gutteling,et al.  The development of reactions of the public to warning and emergency situations in France, Greece, and the Netherlands. , 1992, The Journal of social psychology.

[51]  J Zhang,et al.  Environmental hazards in the Chinese public's eyes. , 1994, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[52]  B. Johnson.  Risk Communication: A Mental Models Approach , 2002 .

[53]  Beverly A. Sauer,et al.  Communicating Risk in a Cross-Cultural Context , 1996 .

[54]  Hans Peter Peters.  Mass Media As an Information Channel and Public Arena , 1994 .

[55]  U. Bauer,et al.  [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)]. , 2000, Annales de dermatologie et de venereologie.

[56]  G Tomson,et al.  Ally, advocate, analyst, agenda-setter? Positions and perceptions of Swedish medical journalists. , 1997, Patient education and counseling.

[57]  William R. Freudenburg,et al.  MEDIA COVERAGE OF HAZARD EVENTS : ANALYZING THE ASSUMPTIONS , 1995 .

[58]  B. Fischhoff,et al.  COMMUNICATING RISK TO THE PUBLIC , 1992 .

[59]  K. Dooley,et al.  The Dynamics of Electronic Media Coverage , 2003 .

[60]  Eleanor Singer,et al.  Reporting on Risk: How the Mass Media Portray Accidents, Diseases, Disasters and Other Hazards , 1993 .

[61]  R. Allen,et al.  Evaluation methods for environmental standards , 1983 .

[62]  Perception of Dioxin and other Risks in Japan: Replication and Extension , 1999, Perceptual and motor skills.

[63]  D. Weed,et al.  The association between alcohol and breast cancer: popular press coverage of research. , 1995, American journal of public health.

[64]  George M. Gray,et al.  Risk: A Practical Guide for Deciding What's Really Safe and What's Really Dangerous in the World Around You , 2002 .

[65]  W. Leiss.  Three Phases in the Evolution of Risk Communication Practice , 1996 .

[66]  Ragnar E. Löfstedt,et al.  Risk communication in the Swedish energy sector , 1993 .

[67]  M. Haider.  Global Public Health Communication: Challenges, Perspectives, And Strategies , 2005 .

[68]  J. Grabenstein,et al.  Are Vaccines Safe? Risk Communication Applied to Vaccination , 1999 .

[69]  Y. Ku,et al.  Health Beliefs and Early Detection among Chinese Women , 1996, Western journal of nursing research.

[70]  A. Tversky,et al.  On the elicitation of preferences for alternative therapies. , 1982, The New England journal of medicine.

[71]  Alexander J. Rothman,et al.  Treating people with information: an analysis and review of approaches to communicating health risk information. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Monographs.

[72]  E. L. Quarantelli,et al.  The Sociology Of Panic , 2001 .

[73]  William J. Burns,et al.  The Social Amplification of Risk: Theoretical Foundations and Empirical Applications , 1992 .

[74]  Bolanle A. Olaniran,et al.  Expanding the crisis planning function: Introducing elements of risk communication to crisis communication practice , 1998 .

[75]  M. Leavitt,et al.  Department of Health and Human Services , 2007, Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness.

[76]  Hans Peter Peters,et al.  The interaction of journalists and scientific experts: co-operation and conflict between two professional cultures , 1995 .

[77]  C. Russell.  Living can be hazardous to your health: how the news media cover cancer risks. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Monographs.

[78]  G R Norman,et al.  Expressions of probability: words and numbers. , 1980, The New England journal of medicine.

[79]  Communicating health risk. , 1999, Occupational medicine.

[80]  John Eldridge,et al.  The Social Amplification of Risk: Risk and relativity: BSE and the British media , 2003 .

[81]  C. Nzioka.  Lay perceptions of risk of HIV infection and the social construction of safer sex: some experiences from Kenya. , 1996, AIDS care.

[82]  Sheldon Krimsky,et al.  Environmental Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social Process , 1988 .

[83]  Paul Slovic,et al.  What Should We Know About Making Risk Comparisons?1 , 1990 .

[84]  Rae Zimmerman,et al.  Social Trust and the Management of Risk , 2006 .

[85]  Blackford Middleton,et al.  Communicating Health Information to an Alarmed Public Facing a Threat Such as a Bioterrorist Attack , 2004, Journal of health communication.

[86]  G. Rowe,et al.  Newspaper reporting of hazards in the UK and Sweden , 2000, Public understanding of science.

[87]  V T Covello,et al.  The Determinants of Trust and Credibility in Environmental Risk Communication: An Empirical Study , 1997, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[88]  Vincent T. Covello,et al.  Effective Risk Communication , 1989 .

[89]  J. G. Hollands,et al.  The visual communication of risk. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Monographs.

[90]  E. Vaughan,et al.  The Significance of Socioeconomic and Ethnic Diversity for the Risk Communication Process , 1995 .

[91]  G. Yep.  Communicating the HIV/AIDS Risk to Hispanic Populations: A Review and Integration , 1992 .

[92]  Allan Mazur.  Technical Risk in the Mass Media: Introduction , 1994 .

[93]  Sharon Dunwoody,et al.  Scientists as Mass Media Sources , 1982 .

[94]  D R Holtgrave,et al.  Advances in public health communication. , 1995, Annual review of public health.

[95]  V. Covello,et al.  Best Practices in Public Health Risk and Crisis Communication , 2003, Journal of health communication.

[96]  M. Slater,et al.  Audience Responses to a Risk Communication Message in Four Media Formats , 1996 .

[97]  Tim L. Tinker,et al.  An evaluation primer on health risk communication programs and outcomes , 1997 .

[98]  P. Sandman.  14 – Mass media and environmental risk: seven principles , 1994 .

[99]  Kim Witte,et al.  Generating Effective Risk Messages: How Scary Should Your Risk Communication Be? , 1995 .