Prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, and the immune system: experimental data and clinical evidence

Purpose of review The intestinal immune system is constantly exposed to foreign antigens, which for the most part should be tolerated. Certain probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics are able to influence immune responses. In this review, we highlight the recent publications (within the last 2 years) that have substantially progressed this field. Recent findings The immunological mechanisms underpinning probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics effects continue to be better defined with novel mechanisms being described for dendritic cells, epithelial cells, T regulatory cells, effector lymphocytes, natural killer T cells, and B cells. Many of the mechanisms being described are bacterial strain or metabolite specific, and should not be extrapolated to other probiotics or prebiotics. In addition, the timing of intervention seems to be important, with potentially the greatest effects being observed early in life. Summary In this review, we discuss the recent findings relating to probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics, specifically their effects on immunological functions.

[1]  K. Karimi,et al.  A Lactobacillus rhamnosus Strain Induces a Heme Oxygenase Dependent Increase in Foxp3+ Regulatory T Cells , 2012, PloS one.

[2]  C. Mackay,et al.  The role of short-chain fatty acids in health and disease. , 2014, Advances in immunology.

[3]  L. O’Mahony,et al.  Intestinal dendritic cells , 2015, Current opinion in gastroenterology.

[4]  C. Akdis,et al.  IL-10-overexpressing B cells regulate innate and adaptive immune responses. , 2015, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[5]  L. Vogelpoel,et al.  Retinoic acid primes human dendritic cells to induce gut-homing, IL-10-producing regulatory T cells , 2014, Mucosal Immunology.

[6]  J. Weitkamp,et al.  Maternal influences on fetal microbial colonization and immune development , 2015, Pediatric Research.

[7]  S. Jones,et al.  Protection from Intestinal Inflammation by Bacterial Exopolysaccharides , 2014, The Journal of Immunology.

[8]  A. Kaser,et al.  Protective mucosal immunity mediated by epithelial CD1d and IL-10 , 2014, Nature.

[9]  J. Beal,et al.  Beneficial Microbes , 2011 .

[10]  Y. Yang,et al.  Intestinal microbiota pathogenesis and fecal microbiota transplantation for inflammatory bowel disease. , 2014, World journal of gastroenterology.

[11]  Xiangfang Zeng,et al.  Differential regulation of human cathelicidin LL-37 by free fatty acids and their analogs , 2013, Peptides.

[12]  T. Junt,et al.  Gut microbiota metabolism of dietary fiber influences allergic airway disease and hematopoiesis , 2014, Nature Medicine.

[13]  M. Jenmalm,et al.  Gut microbiota and allergy: the importance of the pregnancy period , 2015, Pediatric Research.

[14]  I. Ivanov,et al.  Segmented filamentous bacteria antigens presented by intestinal dendritic cells drive mucosal Th17 cell differentiation. , 2014, Immunity.

[15]  S. Tanabe.  The Effect of Probiotics and Gut Microbiota on Th17 Cells , 2013, International reviews of immunology.

[16]  A. Rudin,et al.  Development of gut-homing receptors on circulating B cells during infancy. , 2011, Clinical immunology.

[17]  A. Rudensky,et al.  Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T cell generation , 2013, Nature.

[18]  Xiao Li,et al.  Lactobacilli Reduce Chemokine IL-8 Production in Response to TNF-α and Salmonella Challenge of Caco-2 Cells , 2013, BioMed research international.

[19]  C. Akdis,et al.  Immunomodulation by Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 in the Murine Lamina Propria Requires Retinoic Acid-Dependent and Independent Mechanisms , 2013, PloS one.

[20]  F. Turroni,et al.  Bifidobacterium bifidum PRL2010 Modulates the Host Innate Immune Response , 2013, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[21]  Bangmao Wang,et al.  Activation of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Mediates Mucin Production Stimulated by p40, a Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG-derived Protein* , 2014, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[22]  C. Akdis,et al.  Histamine receptor 2 is a key influence in immune responses to intestinal histamine-secreting microbes. , 2014, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[23]  Young-Joon Kim,et al.  Effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus on allergic march model by suppressing Th2, Th17, and TSLP responses via CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) Tregs. , 2014, Clinical immunology.

[24]  R. Frei,et al.  Microbiota and dietary interactions – an update to the hygiene hypothesis? , 2012, Allergy.

[25]  E. Alhoniemi,et al.  Xylo-oligosaccharides alone or in synbiotic combination with Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis induce bifidogenesis and modulate markers of immune function in healthy adults: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised, factorial cross-over study , 2014, British Journal of Nutrition.

[26]  A. Fanning,et al.  Modulation of pathogen-induced CCL20 secretion from HT-29 human intestinal epithelial cells by commensal bacteria , 2009, BMC Immunology.

[27]  W. Qian,et al.  Four types of Bifidobacteria trigger autophagy response in intestinal epithelial cells , 2014, Journal of digestive diseases.

[28]  Min Zhang,et al.  Butyrate increases IL-23 production by stimulated dendritic cells. , 2012, American journal of physiology. Gastrointestinal and liver physiology.

[29]  Cara L. Wilhelm,et al.  Proteobacteria-specific IgA regulates maturation of the intestinal microbiota , 2014, Gut microbes.

[30]  P. Scully,et al.  Bifidobacterium infantis suppression of Peyer's patch MIP-1α and MIP-1β secretion during Salmonella infection correlates with increased local CD4+CD25+ T cell numbers. , 2013, Cellular immunology.

[31]  R. Medzhitov,et al.  The microbial metabolite butyrate regulates intestinal macrophage function via histone deacetylase inhibition , 2014, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[32]  F. Shanahan,et al.  Manipulation of the microbiota for treatment of IBS and IBD-challenges and controversies. , 2014, Gastroenterology.

[33]  C. Akdis,et al.  Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 administration induces Foxp3 T regulatory cells in human peripheral blood: potential role for myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells , 2011, Gut.

[34]  A. Rudensky,et al.  Microbial metabolites control gut inflammatory responses , 2014, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[35]  Huidong Shi,et al.  Activation of Gpr109a, receptor for niacin and the commensal metabolite butyrate, suppresses colonic inflammation and carcinogenesis. , 2014, Immunity.

[36]  Alberto Martin,et al.  Short-chain fructo-oligosaccharide and inulin modulate inflammatory responses and microbial communities in Caco2-bbe cells and in a mouse model of intestinal injury. , 2014, The Journal of nutrition.

[37]  M. Jutel,et al.  Histamine and gut mucosal immune regulation , 2014, Allergy.

[38]  Simon A. Jones,et al.  Regulatory B cells are induced by gut microbiota–driven interleukin-1β and interleukin-6 production , 2014, Nature Medicine.

[39]  M. Hattori,et al.  Treg induction by a rationally selected mixture of Clostridia strains from the human microbiota , 2013, Nature.

[40]  C. Akdis,et al.  Histamine receptor 2 modifies dendritic cell responses to microbial ligands. , 2013, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[41]  M. Tomita,et al.  Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells , 2013, Nature.

[42]  S. Dasgupta,et al.  Plasmacytoid dendritic cells mediate anti-inflammatory responses to a gut commensal molecule via both innate and adaptive mechanisms. , 2014, Cell host & microbe.

[43]  F. Shanahan,et al.  Bifidobacterium Infantis 35624 Protects Against Salmonella-Induced Reductions in Digestive Enzyme Activity in Mice by Attenuation of the Host Inflammatory Response , 2012, Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology.

[44]  J. Versalovic,et al.  Lactobacillus rhamnosus L34 and Lactobacillus casei L39 suppress Clostridium difficile-induced IL-8 production by colonic epithelial cells , 2014, BMC Microbiology.

[45]  T. Shiozaki,et al.  Lactobacillus gasseri SBT2055 Induces TGF-β Expression in Dendritic Cells and Activates TLR2 Signal to Produce IgA in the Small Intestine , 2014, PloS one.

[46]  Andre Franke,et al.  Microbial Exposure During Early Life Has Persistent Effects on Natural Killer T Cell Function , 2012, Science.

[47]  T. Dinan,et al.  Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 modulates host inflammatory processes beyond the gut , 2013, Gut microbes.

[48]  C. Mackay,et al.  Diet, metabolites, and "western-lifestyle" inflammatory diseases. , 2014, Immunity.

[49]  Zhiping Li,et al.  Probiotic antigens stimulate hepatic natural killer T cells , 2014, Immunology.

[50]  J. M. Rhoads,et al.  Human-derived probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri strains differentially reduce intestinal inflammation. , 2010, American journal of physiology. Gastrointestinal and liver physiology.