Triage in medicine, part I: Concept, history, and types.

This 2-article series offers a conceptual, historical, and moral analysis of the practice of triage. Part I distinguishes triage from related concepts, reviews the evolution of triage principles and practices, and describes the settings in which triage is commonly practiced. Part II identifies and examines the moral values and principles underlying the practice of triage.

[1]  P. Gunby.  The Face of Mercy: A Photographic History of Medicine at War , 1993 .

[2]  John M Taurek.  Should the numbers count? , 1977, Philosophy & public affairs.

[3]  Judith Tintinalli,et al.  Five-level triage system more effective than three-level in tertiary emergency department. , 2002, Journal of emergency nursing: JEN : official publication of the Emergency Department Nurses Association.

[4]  D W Baker,et al.  Patients who leave emergency departments without being seen by a physician: magnitude of the problem in Los Angeles County. , 1994, Annals of emergency medicine.

[5]  D. Eitel,et al.  The emergency severity index triage algorithm version 2 is reliable and valid. , 2003, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[6]  D Teres.  Civilian triage in the intensive care unit: The ritual of the last bed , 1993, Critical care medicine.

[7]  P. Shekelle,et al.  Next-Day Care for Emergency Department Users with Nonacute Conditions , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[8]  S. Walter,et al.  Reliability of the Canadian emergency department triage and acuity scale: interrater agreement. , 1999, Annals of emergency medicine.

[9]  G. Burke.  Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[10]  P. Yarnold,et al.  Reliability and validity of scores on The Emergency Severity Index version 3. , 2004, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[11]  References , 1971 .

[12]  R. Truog,et al.  Triage in the ICU. , 1992, The Hastings Center report.

[13]  R. Ratner,et al.  Yale studies in ambulatory medical care. V. Determinants of use of hospital emergency services. , 1966, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[14]  R. Derlet,et al.  Prospective identification and triage of nonemergency patients out of an emergency department: a 5-year study. , 1995, Annals of emergency medicine.

[15]  F. Burkle,et al.  Disaster medicine: application for the immediate management and triage of civilian and military disaster victims. , 1984 .

[16]  M. Strosberg,et al.  Triage and Equality: An Historical Reassessment of Utilitarian Analyses of Triage , 1992, Kennedy Institute of Ethics journal.

[17]  J. Moskop.  A moral analysis of military medicine. , 1998, Military medicine.

[18]  R. Veatch.  The foundations of bioethics. , 1999, Bioethics.

[19]  R. Veatch.  Disaster preparedness and triage: justice and the common good. , 2005, The Mount Sinai journal of medicine, New York.

[20]  J. Childress,et al.  Respect for autonomy. , 1994, The Hastings Center report.

[21]  G. Winslow.  Triage and justice , 1982 .

[22]  C. Blagg.  Triage: Napoleon to the present day. , 2004, Journal of nephrology.

[23]  N. Pesik,et al.  Ethical resource distribution after biological, chemical, or radiological terrorism. , 2003, Cambridge quarterly of healthcare ethics : CQ : the international journal of healthcare ethics committees.

[24]  Moshe Sokol.  The Allocation of Scarce Medical Resources: A Philosophical Analysis of the Halakhic Sources , 1990, AJS Review.

[25]  Hart Rg.  Tripartite triage concerns: issues for law and ethics. , 2003 .

[26]  P. Freund,et al.  Experimentation with human subjects , 1972 .

[27]  L D HEATON,et al.  EMERGENCY WAR SURGERY. , 1965, American journal of surgery.

[28]  T. Repine,et al.  The dynamics and ethics of triage: rationing care in hard times. , 2005, Military medicine.

[29]  W. Whitman.  Complete Prose Works , 1897 .

[30]  Principles and Practice of War Surgery , 1943 .

[31]  R. G. Hartman.  Tripartite triage concerns: Issues for law and ethics , 2003, Critical care medicine.

[32]  Alan Emdin.  A Theory of Justice by John Rawls (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 607 pp.; $3.95 [paper]) , 1973 .

[33]  B. Eiseman.  Combat casualty management in Vietnam. , 1967, The Journal of trauma.

[34]  G. Macleod.  The Medical Implications of Nuclear War , 1987 .

[35]  J. Sanders.  Why the numbers should sometimes count , 1988 .

[36]  K. Kennedy,et al.  Triage: techniques and applications in decision making. , 1996, Annals of emergency medicine.

[37]  K. Iserson.  Assessing values: rationing emergency department care. , 1992, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[38]  David A Thompson,et al.  Five-level triage: a report from the ACEP/ENA Five-level Triage Task Force. , 2005, Journal of emergency nursing: JEN : official publication of the Emergency Department Nurses Association.

[39]  J. Bentham.  An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation , 1945, Princeton Readings in Political Thought.

[40]  C. Gatrell.  "Asymptomatic" cervical injuries: a myth? , 1985, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[41]  J. Watt.  Doctors in the Wars , 1984, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[42]  J. Moskop,et al.  From futility to triage. , 1995, The Journal of medicine and philosophy.

[43]  M. Albin,et al.  Anesthesiology's greatest generation? , 2001, Anesthesiology.

[44]  J G Cronin,et al.  The introduction of the Manchester triage scale to an emergency department in the Republic of Ireland. , 2003, Accident and emergency nursing.

[45]  Ron M. Walls,et al.  Rosen's Emergency Medicine - Concepts and Clinical Practice, 2-Volume Set, 8th Edition , 2003 .

[46]  N. K. Bell.  Triage in medical practices: an unacceptable model? , 1981, Social science & medicine. Part F, Medical & social ethics.

[47]  Charles J. Kahi,et al.  Bowel obstruction and pseudo-obstruction. , 2003, Gastroenterology clinics of North America.

[48]  O. Wenker,et al.  Principles Of Hospital Disaster Planning , 1999 .

[49]  D. Larrey.  Memoirs of military surgery, and campaigns of the French armies , 1814 .