Fungal dimorphism with emphasis on fungi pathogenic for humans.

I. Introduction and General Morphology.- 1 An Introduction to Dimorphism among Zoopathogenic Fungi.- 1. Dimorphism: Application of the Term.- 2. Dimorphic Pathogenic Fungi.- 3. General Introductory Thoughts.- References.- 2 Cytological and Ultrastructural Aspects of Dimorphism.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Aspects of Ultrastructural Cytology.- 2.1. Yeast Cell.- 2.2. Hypha.- 2.3. Conidium.- 3. Ultrastructural Aspects of Dimorphism.- 3.1. Yeast-to-Hyphal Cell Transition.- 3.2. Hyphal-to-Yeast Cell Transition.- 3.3. Conidial-to-Yeast Cell Transition.- 4. Concluding Remarks.- References.- II. Fungi with Yeast Tissue Morphologies.- 3 Blastomyces dermatitidis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Growth Requirements.- 3. Microscopy.- 4. Cell Walls.- 5. Metabolic Considerations.- 6. Summary.- References.- 4 Studies on Phase Transitions in the Dimorphic Pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Experimental Studies on Dimorphism.- 2.1. Morphological Studies.- 2.2. Growth Requirements of the Two Phases: Cysteine Metabolism.- 2.3. Role of Cysteine in Regulating Morphogenesis and Mitochondrial Activity.- 2.4. RNA and Protein Synthesis.- 2.5. Cyclic AMP Levels.- 3. Discussion of Dimorphism.- References.- 5 Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Morphology of Dimorphism.- 3. Biochemistry of Dimorphism.- 4. Cell Wall and Dimorphism.- 5. A Model of Dimorphism.- 6. Regulation of Glucan Synthesis in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis Cell Walls.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- 6 Sporothrix schenckii.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Morphological Phase Transition.- 2.1. Sporothrix schenckii Cell Types: In Vitro and in Vivo Morphology.- 2.2. Growth Conditions and Cell Types.- 2.3. Morphologically Related Ceratocystis.- 2.4. Ultrastructure of the Phase Transition.- 3. Biochemical Activities and Cell Constituents.- 3.1. Teleomorph of Sporothrix schenckii.- 4. Cell-Surface Reactivity and Composition.- 4.1. Cell-Wall Composition in Different Cell Types.- 4.2. Reactivity with Lectins.- 4.3. Anionic Groups.- 4.4. Immunofluorescence Reactions.- 4.5. Surface Components and Yeast Phagocytosis.- 5. Sporothrix schenckii Polysaccharides.- 5.1. Rhamnomannans at Different Growth Temperatures.- 5.2. Rhamnomannans of Ceratocystis.- 5.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Polysaccharide Structure.- 5.4. Galactomannans.- 5.5. Glucans in Different Cell Types.- 6. Immunochemistry of Sporothrix schenckii Antigens.- 6.1. Antigenic Determinants and Cross-Reactions.- 6.2. Delayed Hypersensitivity and Other Cell-Mediated Reactions.- 7. Perspectives.- References.- III. Fungi with Yeast and Hyphal Tissue Morphologies.- 7 Candida albicans.- 1. General Introduction.- 2. Phenotypic Repertoire of Candida albicans.- 3. Minimum Requirements for Growth in Culture.- 4. A Simple Method for Regulating Dimorphism Employing pH as the Sole Determining Factor.- 5. Stationary Phase, the Cell Cycle, and Hyphal Induction.- 6. Phenotypic Commitment, Septum Formation, and Filament-Ring Formation.- 7. Biochemical and Physiological Comparisons of the Two Growth Forms.- 7.1. Cyclic AMP.- 7.2. Chitin Synthesis.- 8. Macromolecular Synthesis during Outgrowth in the Two Growth Forms of Candida.- 9. Genetics of Candida.- 10. Conclusion.- References.- 8 Exophiala werneckii.- 1. Introduction and Brief History of Exophiala werneckii as a Pathogen.- 2. Taxonomic Position of the Organism.- 3. Morphological Forms of Exophiala werneckii.- 4. Control of Morphology.- References.- 9 Polymorphism of Wangiella dermatitidis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Yeast Cell.- 2.1. Morphology.- 2.2. Yeast-Cell Division.- 2.3. Yeast-Cell Cycle.- 3. Hypha.- 4. Multicellular Form.- 4.1. Stage I.- 4.2. Stage II.- 5. Transitions between Morphologies.- 5.1. Hyphae to Yeasts.- 5.2. Yeasts to Multicellular Forms.- 5.3. Stage I Forms to Yeasts.- 5.4. Stage I and II Forms to Hyphae.- 6. Cell-Wall Alterations during Multicellular-Form Development.- 6.1. Quantitative Analyses of Cell Walls.- 6.2. Cell-Wall Polymers.- 6.3. Dynamics of Polysaccharide Synthesis during Development.- 6.4. Effect of Polysaccharide Synthetase Inhibitors.- 6.5. Relevance of Cell-Wall Carbohydrate Polymers to Differentiation.- 7. Integration of the Yeast-Cell Cycle and Multicellular-Form Development.- 7.1. "Start".- 7.2. Divergence of Control Sequences.- 7.3. Convergence of Sequences.- 7.4. Cell Separation.- 8. Nature of the Mutations in Mc Strains and Their Relevance to Morphological Development.- 9. Possible Roles of the Defective Gene Products.- 9.1. Nature of the Polarization Director.- 9.2. Candidates for the Polarization Director.- 10. Conclusions.- References.- IV. Fungi with Isotropically Enlarged Tissue Morphologies.- 10 Dimorphism in Chrysosporium parvum.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Taxonomy.- 2. Morphology.- 3. Growth Rate.- 4. Adiaspore-Host Interactions.- 5. Structure and Cytochemistry.- 5.1. Adiaspore Wall.- 5.2. Plasmalemma.- 5.3. Adiaspore Content.- 5.4. Structure of Hyphae and Conidia.- 6. Biochemical and Immunochemical Aspects.- 7. Conidiogenesis.- 8. Development of the Adiaspore.- 8.1. Development from Conidia.- 8.2. Development from Hyphal Cells.- 8.3. Conversion of Colony and Inoculum.- 8.4. Blastic and Thallic Development.- 9. Reproduction of Adiaspores.- 10. Genetic Control.- 11. Environmental Control.- 12. Conclusion.- References.- 11 Phialophora verrucosa and Other Chromoblastomycotic Fungi.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Clinical Features of Chromoblastomycosis.- 3. Microscopic Observations of Infected Tissue.- 3.1. Light Microscopy.- 3.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy.- 3.3. Transmission Electron Microscopy.- 4. Experimental and Natural Infections of Animals.- 5. In Vitro Cultivation of Sclerotic Cells.- 5.1. Early Cultural Methods.- 5.2. Chick-Embryo and Tissue-Culture Methods.- 5.3. Nutritional Studies in Chemically Defined Media.- 6. Control of Morphogenesis in Chromoblastomycotic Fungi.- References.- 12 Arthroconidium-Spherule-Endospore Transformation in Coccidioides immitis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Saprobic Cycle.- 2.1. Mycelial Growth.- 2.2. Conidiogenesis.- 2.3. Ultrastructure.- 2.4. Karyology: Mycelium-Arthroconidium Transformation.- 3. Parasitic Cycle.- 3.1. Karyology: Arthroconidium-Spherule-Endospore Transformation.- 3.2. Spherule Segmentation and Endospore Formation.- 3.3. Ultrastructure.- 3.4. In Vivo Morphogenesis and Fungus-Host Interaction.- 4. Cell Envelope.- 4.1. Wall Isolation and Chemical Composition.- 4.2. Identification of Wall Antigens.- References.- V. Dimorphic Mucors.- 13 Mucor racemosus.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Biology of Mucor racemosus.- 2.1. Preface.- 2.2. Vegetative Life Cycle.- 3. Biochemistry and Physiology of Mucor racemosus.- 3.1. Respiration and Fermentation.- 3.2. Cyclic 3?,5?-Adenosine Monophosphate.- 3.3. Lipid Synthesis.- 3.4. Enzyme Synthesis.- 3.5. S-Adenosylmethionine Metabolism.- 4. Molecular Biology of Mucor racemosus.- 4.1. Preface.- 4.2. Protein Synthesis.- 4.3. Gene Organization.- 4.4. DNA Synthesis and Nuclear Division.- 5. Multiple Drug Resistance of Mucor racemosus.- 6. Conclusion.- References.- 14 Dimorphism in Mucor Species with Emphasis on M. rouxii and M. bacilliformis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Growth Characteristics of Mucor Species.- 2.1. Spore Germination.- 2.2. Hyphal and Yeast Growth.- 2.3. Hyphal-Yeast Transitions.- 3. Factors that Affect Morphology in Mucorales.- 3.1. Atmospheric Environment.- 3.2. Nutritional Factors.- 3.3. Effect of Inhibitors.- 4. Metabolic and Biochemical Alterations Related to Dimorphism.- 4.1. General Considerations.- 4.2. Carbon Metabolism.- 4.3. Respiratory Enzymes.- 4.4. Nitrogen Metabolism.- 4.5. Biosynthesis of Proteins and Nucleic Acids.- 5. Cell-Wall Structure and Biosynthesis during the Dimorphic Transition.- 5.1. Chemical Composition.- 5.2. Cell-Wall Biosynthesis and Polarization.- 6. Genetic Approaches to the Study of Dimorphism.- 7. General Conclusions and Perspectives.- References.