Monitoring of Cardiorespiratory Signal: Principles of Remote Measurements and Review of Methods

Physiological signs can be remotely observed from the physiological and physical effects caused by a cardiorespiratory activity. A wide range of research on remote cardiorespiratory monitoring systems has been done using different methods, including methods based on Doppler effect, thermal imaging, and video camera imaging. The aim of this paper was to review and compare the newest and most promising of such remote measuring methods, introducing their merits and limitations under different circumstances. In addition, this paper summarizes the performance of these methods in a table regarding the noise artifacts, subject movement, the number of regions of interest, generalization to multiple subjects, detection range (distance), biological effects, and cost. This is a thorough general overview of the remote measurement of cardiorespiratory methods.

[1]  Donald Y. C. Lie,et al.  A 2.4GHz Non-Contact Biosensor System for Continuous Monitoring of Vital-Signs , 2011 .

[2]  Timo Tigges,et al.  Camera-based system for contactless monitoring of respiration , 2013, 2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[3]  Jenshan Lin,et al.  A microwave radio for Doppler radar sensing of vital signs , 2001, 2001 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Sympsoium Digest (Cat. No.01CH37157).

[4]  Abbas K. Abbas,et al.  Neonatal non-contact respiratory monitoring based on real-time infrared thermography , 2011, Biomedical engineering online.

[5]  E. P. Tomasini,et al.  An optical measurement method for the simultaneous assessment of respiration and heart rates in preterm infants. , 2013, The Review of scientific instruments.

[6]  Joachim Hornegger,et al.  Time-of-flight sensor for respiratory motion gating. , 2008, Medical physics.

[7]  Ananjan Basu,et al.  Remote sensing of vital sign of human body with radio frequency , 2016, CSI Transactions on ICT.

[8]  Abbas K. Abbas,et al.  Non-Contact Respiratory Monitoring Based on Real-Time IR-Thermography , 2009 .

[9]  Ali Al-Naji,et al.  Noncontact Heart Activity Measurement System Based on Video Imaging Analysis , 2017, Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell..

[10]  Guanghao Sun,et al.  Non-contact measurement of respiratory and heart rates using a CMOS camera-equipped infrared camera for prompt infection screening at airport quarantine stations , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Virtual Environments for Measurement Systems and Applications (CIVEMSA).

[11]  Ming-Sui Lee,et al.  Breath and Position Monitoring during Sleeping with a Depth Camera , 2012, HEALTHINF.

[12]  Yuting Yang,et al.  Noncontact Monitoring Breathing Pattern, Exhalation Flow Rate and Pulse Transit Time , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[13]  Junyi Xia,et al.  A real-time respiratory motion monitoring system using KINECT: proof of concept. , 2012, Medical physics.

[14]  Lorenzo Scalise,et al.  Non contact measurement of heart and respiration rates based on Kinect™ , 2014, 2014 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA).

[15]  Yu Sun,et al.  Motion-compensated noncontact imaging photoplethysmography to monitor cardiorespiratory status during exercise. , 2011, Journal of biomedical optics.

[16]  Marc Garbey,et al.  Contact-Free Measurement of Cardiac Pulse Based on the Analysis of Thermal Imagery , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[17]  Julia Richter,et al.  Signal fusion based on intensity and motion variations for remote heart rate determination , 2016, 2016 IEEE International Conference on Imaging Systems and Techniques (IST).

[18]  Minghui Yu,et al.  Video-based heart rate measurement using head motion tracking and ICA , 2013, 2013 6th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP).

[19]  Sang-Heon Lee,et al.  Real Time Apnoea Monitoring of Children Using the Microsoft Kinect Sensor: A Pilot Study , 2017, Sensors.

[20]  Frédéric Bousefsaf,et al.  Continuous wavelet filtering on webcam photoplethysmographic signals to remotely assess the instantaneous heart rate , 2013, Biomed. Signal Process. Control..

[21]  Ming Yang,et al.  Vital sign estimation from passive thermal video , 2008, 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[22]  Javaan S. Chahl,et al.  Contactless Cardiac Activity Detection Based on Head Motion Magnification , 2017, Int. J. Image Graph..

[23]  Sijung Hu,et al.  The preliminary investigation of imaging photoplethysmographic system , 2007 .

[24]  J. Amat,et al.  VISION BASED RESPIRATORY MONITORING SYSTEM , 2022 .

[25]  S. Julius,et al.  Elevated Heart Rate: A Major Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease , 2004, Clinical and experimental hypertension.

[26]  L. O. Svaasand,et al.  Remote plethysmographic imaging using ambient light. , 2008, Optics express.

[27]  Aly A. Farag,et al.  Multiresolution Approach for Non-Contact Measurements of Arterial Pulse using Thermal Imaging , 2006, 2006 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop (CVPRW'06).

[28]  Kun-mu Chen,et al.  An X-Band Microwave Life-Detection System , 1986, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[29]  Rafik A. Goubran,et al.  Adaptive eulerian video magnification methods to extract heart rate from thermal video , 2016, 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA).

[30]  German Da Costa,et al.  Optical remote sensing of heartbeats , 2001, SPIE Defense + Commercial Sensing.

[31]  Yue Tian,et al.  Contact-free Measurement of Heart Rate Variability via a Microwave Sensor , 2009, Sensors.

[32]  Y. Mendelson,et al.  Noninvasive pulse oximetry utilizing skin reflectance photoplethysmography , 1988, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[33]  Steffen Leonhardt,et al.  Hybrid optical imaging technology for long-term remote monitoring of skin perfusion and temperature behavior , 2014, Journal of biomedical optics.

[34]  Z. Yaniv,et al.  Monitoring Patient Respiration using a Single Optical Camera , 2007, 2007 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[35]  D. Haan,et al.  Improved motion robustness of remote-PPG by using the blood volume pulse signature , 2014 .

[36]  I. Sato,et al.  Non-contact Breath Motion Monitor ing System in Full Automation , 2005, 2005 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 27th Annual Conference.

[37]  L. Tarassenko,et al.  Non-contact video-based vital sign monitoring using ambient light and auto-regressive models , 2014, Physiological measurement.

[38]  F. Mastik,et al.  Contactless Multiple Wavelength Photoplethysmographic Imaging: A First Step Toward “SpO2 Camera” Technology , 2005, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[39]  F. Bremond,et al.  HUMAN ACTION RECOGNITION IN VIDEOS : A SURVEY , 2016 .

[40]  Joseph A. O'Sullivan,et al.  Hidden State Models for Noncontact Measurements of the Carotid Pulse Using a Laser Doppler Vibrometer , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[41]  Wei Hu,et al.  Noncontact Accurate Measurement of Cardiopulmonary Activity Using a Compact Quadrature Doppler Radar Sensor , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[42]  Peter Xiaoping Liu,et al.  Wrist pulse measurement and analysis using Eulerian video magnification , 2016, 2016 IEEE-EMBS International Conference on Biomedical and Health Informatics (BHI).

[43]  Lorenzo Scalise,et al.  Heart rate measurement in neonatal patients using a webcamera , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications Proceedings.

[44]  Sijung Hu,et al.  Development of effective photoplethysmographic measurement techniques: From contact to non-contact and from point to imaging , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[45]  Ashikur Rahman,et al.  Non-invasive heart rate measuring smartphone applications using on-board cameras: A short survey , 2015, 2015 International Conference on Networking Systems and Security (NSysS).

[46]  C. Takano,et al.  Heart rate measurement based on a time-lapse image. , 2007, Medical engineering & physics.

[47]  Sijung Hu,et al.  Feasibility of Imaging Photoplethysmography , 2008, 2008 International Conference on BioMedical Engineering and Informatics.

[48]  Matti Pietikäinen,et al.  Remote Heart Rate Measurement from Face Videos under Realistic Situations , 2014, 2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[49]  Lai-Man Po,et al.  Motion artifacts suppression for remote imaging photoplethysmography , 2014, 2014 19th International Conference on Digital Signal Processing.

[50]  Se Dong Min,et al.  Noncontact Respiration Rate Measurement System Using an Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor , 2010, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[51]  James C. Lin,et al.  A new IEEE standard for safety levels with respect to human exposure to radio-frequency radiation , 2006 .

[52]  Majid Sarrafzadeh,et al.  A Self-Calibrating Radar Sensor System for Measuring Vital Signs , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems.

[53]  Juan Cheng,et al.  Illumination variation interference suppression in remote PPG using PLS and MEMD , 2017 .

[54]  M. Grigioni,et al.  Optical Vibrocardiography: A Novel Tool for the Optical Monitoring of Cardiac Activity , 2006, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[55]  Ethan B. Blackford,et al.  Effects of frame rate and image resolution on pulse rate measured using multiple camera imaging photoplethysmography , 2015, Medical Imaging.

[56]  M J Butler,et al.  Motion limitations of non-contact photoplethysmography due to the optical and topological properties of skin , 2016, Physiological measurement.

[57]  Alexei A. Kamshilin,et al.  Photoplethysmographic imaging of high spatial resolution , 2011, Biomedical optics express.

[58]  Lalit K. Mestha,et al.  Estimation of Respiratory Pattern From Video Using Selective Ensemble Aggregation , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing.

[59]  German Da Costa,et al.  Optical remote sensing of heartbeats , 1995 .

[60]  Yu Sun,et al.  Photoplethysmography Revisited: From Contact to Noncontact, From Point to Imaging , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[61]  Albert van der Veen,et al.  Development of a baby friendly non-contact method for measuring vital signs: First results of clinical measurements in an open incubator at a neonatal intensive care unit , 2014, Photonics West - Biomedical Optics.

[62]  Hagen Malberg,et al.  ROI Selection for Remote Photoplethysmography , 2013, Bildverarbeitung für die Medizin.

[63]  Daniel McDuff,et al.  Advancements in Noncontact, Multiparameter Physiological Measurements Using a Webcam , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[64]  K. Saladin Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function , 1997 .

[65]  Jenshan Lin,et al.  Design and Analysis of a 60-GHz CMOS Doppler Micro-Radar System-in-Package for Vital-Sign and Vibration Detection , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques.

[66]  Sander Stuijk,et al.  Algorithmic Principles of Remote PPG , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[67]  Zhiqi Shen,et al.  Video-based human heart rate measurement using joint blind source separation , 2017, Biomed. Signal Process. Control..

[68]  Sander Stuijk,et al.  Robust heart rate from fitness videos , 2017, Physiological measurement.

[69]  U. Morbiducci,et al.  Non-contact cardiac monitoring from carotid artery using optical vibrocardiography. , 2008, Medical engineering & physics.

[70]  T. Brabetz,et al.  Detection of cardiac activity using a 5.8 GHz radio frequency sensor , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[71]  I. Pavlidis,et al.  Touchless monitoring of breathing function , 2004, The 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[72]  T Tamura,et al.  Development of real-time image sequence analysis for evaluating posture change and respiratory rate of a subject in bed , 2001, Physiological measurement.

[73]  J B Harness,et al.  Skin photoplethysmography--a review. , 1989, Computer methods and programs in biomedicine.

[74]  D.C.J. Howell SIGNS OF RESPIRATORY DISEASE | Lung Sounds , 2006 .

[75]  Javaan Chahl,et al.  Remote sensing of physiological signs using a machine vision system , 2017, Journal of medical engineering & technology.

[76]  André Bourdoux,et al.  Frequency-Tracking CW Doppler Radar Solving Small-Angle Approximation and Null Point Issues in Non-Contact Vital Signs Monitoring , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems.

[77]  V. Lubecke,et al.  Sub-μW signal power doppler radar heart rate detection , 2006, 2006 Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference.

[78]  Kazuki Nakajima,et al.  A method for measuring respiration and physical activity in bed by optical flow analysis , 1997, Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 'Magnificent Milestones and Emerging Opportunities in Medical Engineering' (Cat. No.97CH36136).

[79]  Daniel McDuff,et al.  Improvements in Remote Cardiopulmonary Measurement Using a Five Band Digital Camera , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[80]  Ioannis T. Pavlidis,et al.  Analysis of Breathing Air Flow Patterns in Thermal Imaging , 2006, 2006 International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[81]  D. Blackstock,et al.  Medication Safety Alerts , 2004 .

[82]  J. Tsien,et al.  Remote Measurements of Heart and Respiration Rates for Telemedicine , 2013, PloS one.

[83]  Ali Al-Naji,et al.  Remote respiratory monitoring system based on developing motion magnification technique , 2016, Biomed. Signal Process. Control..

[84]  Daniel Teichmann,et al.  Non-contact monitoring techniques - Principles and applications , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[85]  T. Pursche,et al.  Video-based heart rate measurement from human faces , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE).

[86]  Ghaïs El Zein,et al.  Multitunable microwave system for touchless heartbeat detection and heart rate variability extraction , 2010 .

[87]  Suh-Yin Lee,et al.  Image Sensor-Based Heart Rate Evaluation From Face Reflectance Using Hilbert–Huang Transform , 2015, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[88]  Xun Chen,et al.  Illumination Variation-Resistant Video-Based Heart Rate Measurement Using Joint Blind Source Separation and Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition , 2017, IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics.

[89]  Ioannis T. Pavlidis,et al.  Thermistor at a Distance: Unobtrusive Measurement of Breathing , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[90]  T. Ward,et al.  Noncontact simultaneous dual wavelength photoplethysmography: a further step toward noncontact pulse oximetry. , 2007, The Review of scientific instruments.

[91]  Thanh-Hai Tran,et al.  Accurate object localization using RFID and Microsoft Kinect sensor , 2016, 2016 Eighth International Conference on Knowledge and Systems Engineering (KSE).

[92]  Lorenzo Scalise,et al.  Measurement of respiration rate in preterm infants by laser Doppler vibrometry , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications.

[93]  Joachim Hornegger,et al.  Robust real-time 3D respiratory motion detection using time-of-flight cameras , 2008, International Journal of Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery.

[94]  C. P. Wang Laser Doppler velocimetry , 1988 .

[95]  V. M. Lubecke,et al.  10 GHz Doppler radar sensing of respiration and heart movement , 2002, Proceedings of the IEEE 28th Annual Northeast Bioengineering Conference (IEEE Cat. No.02CH37342).

[96]  O. Boric-Lubecke,et al.  Non-contact respiratory rate measurement validation for hospitalized patients , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[97]  L. Tarassenko,et al.  Photoplethysmographic derivation of respiratory rate: a review of relevant physiology , 2012, Journal of medical engineering & technology.

[98]  Sander Stuijk,et al.  A Novel Algorithm for Remote Photoplethysmography: Spatial Subspace Rotation , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[99]  S. Sezer,et al.  Signal processing methods for non-contact cardiac detection using Doppler radar , 2010, 2010 IEEE Workshop On Signal Processing Systems.

[100]  Janko Drnovsek,et al.  Non-contact heart rate and heart rate variability measurements: A review , 2014, Biomed. Signal Process. Control..

[101]  I. Pavlidis,et al.  Noncontact measurement of breathing function , 2006, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine.

[102]  Marc Garbey,et al.  Imaging the cardiovascular pulse , 2005, 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05).

[103]  Thomas B. Moeslund,et al.  Improved pulse detection from head motions using DCT , 2014, 2014 International Conference on Computer Vision Theory and Applications (VISAPP).

[104]  R. Beauvais Laser-Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) , 1994 .

[105]  Doru-Petru Munteanu,et al.  Non-contact cardiopulmonary monitoring algorithm for a 24 GHz Doppler radar , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[106]  Kwang Suk Park,et al.  Validation of heart rate extraction using video imaging on a built-in camera system of a smartphone , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[107]  D. Falie,et al.  Statistical algorithm for detection and screening sleep apnea , 2009, 2009 International Symposium on Signals, Circuits and Systems.

[108]  Ming-Sui Lee,et al.  Noncontact respiratory measurement of volume change using depth camera , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[109]  O. Boric-Lubecke,et al.  A digital signal processor for Doppler radar sensing of vital signs , 2001, 2001 Conference Proceedings of the 23rd Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[110]  G. Cerri,et al.  Non contact monitoring of the respiration activity by electromagnetic sensing. , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications.

[111]  Gregory F. Lewis,et al.  A novel method for extracting respiration rate and relative tidal volume from infrared thermography. , 2011, Psychophysiology.

[112]  Yu Sun,et al.  Use of ambient light in remote photoplethysmographic systems: comparison between a high-performance camera and a low-cost webcam. , 2012, Journal of biomedical optics.

[113]  Wen-Jiin Tsai,et al.  Face-Based Heart Rate Signal Decomposition and Evaluation Using Multiple Linear Regression , 2016, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[114]  Gerard de Haan,et al.  Robust Pulse Rate From Chrominance-Based rPPG , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[115]  U. Bal Non-contact estimation of heart rate and oxygen saturation using ambient light. , 2015, Biomedical optics express.

[116]  Rob Miller,et al.  Smart Homes that Monitor Breathing and Heart Rate , 2015, CHI.

[117]  Martina Mueller,et al.  Development and Validation of a Smartphone Heart Rate Acquisition Application for Health Promotion and Wellness Telehealth Applications , 2012, International journal of telemedicine and applications.

[118]  Lorenzo Scalise,et al.  Optical method for measurement of respiration rate , 2010, 2010 IEEE International Workshop on Medical Measurements and Applications.

[119]  Mang I Vai,et al.  AFC-ECG: An Adaptive Fuzzy ECG Classifier , 2007 .

[120]  Winston H. Hsu,et al.  Learning-based heart rate detection from remote photoplethysmography features , 2014, 2014 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP).

[121]  Lai-Man Po,et al.  Motion-Resistant Remote Imaging Photoplethysmography Based on the Optical Properties of Skin , 2015, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology.

[122]  He Tan,et al.  Non-contact heart rate tracking using Doppler radar , 2012, 2012 International Conference on Systems and Informatics (ICSAI2012).

[123]  Tomasz Kocejko,et al.  Proceedings of the Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems pp. 405–410 ISBN 978-83-60810-22-4 Measuring Pulse Rate with a Webcam – a Non-contact Method for Evaluating Cardiac Activity , 2022 .

[124]  Westgate Road,et al.  Photoplethysmography and its application in clinical physiological measurement , 2007 .

[125]  Zhiyuan Yang,et al.  Combustion mechanism of double-base propellant containing nitrogen heterocyclic nitroamines (II): The temperature distribution of the flame and its chemical structure , 2009 .

[126]  G. Matthews,et al.  A non-contact vital signs monitor. , 2000, Critical reviews in biomedical engineering.

[127]  W. Verkruysse,et al.  Non-contact heart rate monitoring utilizing camera photoplethysmography in the neonatal intensive care unit - a pilot study. , 2013, Early human development.

[128]  Aly E. Fathy,et al.  Non-invasive detection of cardiac and respiratory rates from stepped frequency continuous wave radar measurements using the state space method , 2015, 2015 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium.

[129]  Cristian Rotariu,et al.  Wireless system for remote monitoring of oxygen saturation and heart rate , 2012, 2012 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems (FedCSIS).

[130]  Changzhan Gu,et al.  Application of Linear-Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave (LFMCW) Radars for Tracking of Vital Signs , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques.

[131]  Yong Gyu Lim,et al.  Monitoring physiological signals using nonintrusive sensors installed in daily life equipment , 2011 .

[132]  A. Farag,et al.  Non-contact , Wavelet-based Measurement of Vital Signs using Thermal Imaging , 2005 .

[133]  Rosalind W. Picard,et al.  Non-contact, automated cardiac pulse measurements using video imaging and blind source separation , 2022 .

[134]  Frédo Durand,et al.  Detecting Pulse from Head Motions in Video , 2013, 2013 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[135]  Steffen Leonhardt,et al.  Ambient and Unobtrusive Cardiorespiratory Monitoring Techniques , 2015, IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering.

[136]  Marc Garbey,et al.  Interacting with human physiology , 2007, Comput. Vis. Image Underst..

[137]  E. F. Greneker,et al.  Radar sensing of heartbeat and respiration at a distance with applications of the technology , 1997 .