Face Recognition by Humans: Nineteen Results All Computer Vision Researchers Should Know About

A key goal of computer vision researchers is to create automated face recognition systems that can equal, and eventually surpass, human performance. To this end, it is imperative that computational researchers know of the key findings from experimental studies of face recognition by humans. These findings provide insights into the nature of cues that the human visual system relies upon for achieving its impressive performance and serve as the building blocks for efforts to artificially emulate these abilities. In this paper, we present what we believe are 19 basic results, with implications for the design of computational systems. Each result is described briefly and appropriate pointers are provided to permit an in-depth study of any particular result

[1]  R. Stephenson.  A and V , 1962, The British journal of ophthalmology.

[2]  R. Yin.  Looking at Upside-down Faces , 1969 .

[3]  L. D. Harmon.  The recognition of faces. , 1973, Scientific American.

[4]  B Julesz,et al.  Masking in Visual Recognition: Effects of Two-Dimensional Filtered Noise , 1973, Science.

[5]  S. Carey,et al.  From piecemeal to configurational representation of faces. , 1977, Science.

[6]  H. Ellis,et al.  Cue Saliency in Faces as Assessed by the ‘Photofit’ Technique , 1977, Perception.

[7]  H. Ellis,et al.  Face recognition accuracy as a function of mode of representation. , 1978 .

[8]  H. Ellis,et al.  Identification of Familiar and Unfamiliar Faces from Internal and External Features: Some Implications for Theories of Face Recognition , 1979, Perception.

[9]  G. Sandini,et al.  The Role of High Spatial Frequencies in Face Perception , 1983, Perception.

[10]  R. Desimone,et al.  Stimulus-selective properties of inferior temporal neurons in the macaque , 1984, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[11]  Noel C. F. Codella,et al.  Image Segmentation Techniques , 1984 .

[12]  A. Young,et al.  Matching Familiar and Unfamiliar Faces on Internal and External Features , 1985, Perception.

[13]  D.E. Pearson,et al.  Visual communication at very low data rates , 1985, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[14]  A. Young,et al.  Understanding face recognition. , 1986, British journal of psychology.

[15]  S. Carey,et al.  Why faces are and are not special: an effect of expertise. , 1986 .

[16]  V. Bruce.  Influences of Familiarity on the Processing of Faces , 1986, Perception.

[17]  W. Schiff,et al.  Recognizing people seen in events via dynamic "mug shots". , 1986, The American journal of psychology.

[18]  S. Carey,et al.  Why faces are and are not special: an effect of expertise. , 1986, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[19]  A. Young,et al.  Configurational Information in Face Perception , 1987, Perception.

[20]  A. Damasio,et al.  Intact recognition of facial expression, gender, and age in patients with impaired recognition of face identity , 1988, Neurology.

[21]  M. Hasselmo,et al.  The role of expression and identity in the face-selective responses of neurons in the temporal visual cortex of the monkey , 1989, Behavioural Brain Research.

[22]  I. Fraser,et al.  Reaction Time Measures of Feature Saliency in Schematic Faces , 1990, Perception.

[23]  Kirk Martinez,et al.  Computer Generated Cartoons , 1990 .

[24]  Peter Földiák,et al.  Learning Invariance from Transformation Sequences , 1991, Neural Comput..

[25]  D. Perrett,et al.  Perception and recognition of photographic quality facial caricatures: Implications for the recognition of natural images , 1991 .

[26]  Mark H. Johnson,et al.  Newborns' preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline , 1991, Cognition.

[27]  V. Bruce,et al.  The importance of ‘mass’ in line drawings of faces , 1992 .

[28]  A. Young,et al.  Face perception after brain injury. Selective impairments affecting identity and expression. , 1993, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[29]  Y. Miyashita.  Inferior temporal cortex: where visual perception meets memory. , 1993, Annual review of neuroscience.

[30]  V Bruce,et al.  The Use of Pigmentation and Shading Information in Recognising the Sex and Identities of Faces , 1994, Perception.

[31]  I. Craw,et al.  Effects of high-pass and low-pass spatial filtering on face identification , 1996, Perception & psychophysics.

[32]  T. Poggio,et al.  I think I know that face... , 1996, Nature.

[33]  G. Rhodes.  Superportraits: Caricatures and Recognition , 1996 .

[34]  Denis Fize,et al.  Speed of processing in the human visual system , 1996, Nature.

[35]  Tomaso Poggio,et al.  Role of learning in three-dimensional form perception , 1996, Nature.

[36]  R Kemp,et al.  Perception and Recognition of Normal and Negative Faces: The Role of Shape from Shading and Pigmentation Cues , 1996, Perception.

[37]  T. Allison,et al.  Face-Specific Processing in the Human Fusiform Gyrus , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[38]  M. Tarr,et al.  Levels of categorization in visual recognition studied using functional magnetic resonance imaging , 1997, Current Biology.

[39]  M. Tarr,et al.  Becoming a “Greeble” Expert: Exploring Mechanisms for Face Recognition , 1997, Vision Research.

[40]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[41]  D. Perrett,et al.  Presentation-Time Measures of the Effects of Manipulations in Colour Space on Discrimination of Famous Faces , 1997, Perception.

[42]  Wendy L. Braje,et al.  Illumination effects in face recognition , 1998, Psychobiology.

[43]  Daniel P. Huttenlocher,et al.  Image segmentation using local variation , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (Cat. No.98CB36231).

[44]  P. Cavanagh,et al.  A shape-contrast effect for briefly presented stimuli. , 1998, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[45]  K. Nakayama,et al.  The effect of face inversion on the human fusiform face area , 1998, Cognition.

[46]  V. Bruce,et al.  Face Recognition in Poor-Quality Video: Evidence From Security Surveillance , 1999 .

[47]  Kenji Kawano,et al.  Global and fine information coded by single neurons in the temporal visual cortex , 1999, Nature.

[48]  Paul Miller,et al.  Verification of face identities from images captured on video. , 1999 .

[49]  C. Liu,et al.  Lighting direction affects recognition of untextured faces in photographic positive and negative , 1999, Vision Research.

[50]  Otto H. MacLin,et al.  Figural aftereffects in the perception of faces , 1999, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[51]  Thomas Vetter,et al.  Three-dimensional shape and two-dimensional surface reflectance contributions to face recognition: an application of three-dimensional morphing , 1999, Vision Research.

[52]  A. Young,et al.  Configural information in facial expression perception. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[53]  D. Perrett,et al.  Manipulation of Colour and Shape Information and its Consequence upon Recognition and Best-Likeness Judgments , 2000, Perception.

[54]  K. Nakayama,et al.  RESPONSE PROPERTIES OF THE HUMAN FUSIFORM FACE AREA , 2000, Cognitive neuropsychology.

[55]  G. Schwarzer,et al.  Development of face processing: the effect of face inversion. , 2000, Child development.

[56]  J. Haxby,et al.  The distributed human neural system for face perception , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[57]  A. Freire,et al.  The Face-Inversion Effect as a Deficit in the Encoding of Configural Information: Direct Evidence , 2000, Perception.

[58]  D. Hay,et al.  Developmental changes in the recognition of faces and facial features. , 2000 .

[59]  Tim Valentine,et al.  Face–space models of face recognition. , 2001 .

[60]  F. Simion,et al.  The origins of face perception: specific versus non‐specific mechanisms , 2001 .

[61]  A. O'Toole,et al.  Prototype-referenced shape encoding revealed by high-level aftereffects , 2001, Nature Neuroscience.

[62]  Kevin Barraclough,et al.  I and i , 2001, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[63]  H. Bülthoff,et al.  Effects of temporal association on recognition memory , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[64]  C. Chubb,et al.  The size-tuning of the face-distortion after-effect , 2001, Vision Research.

[65]  G. Hole,et al.  Effects of Geometric Distortions on Face-Recognition Performance , 2002, Perception.

[66]  D. Maurer,et al.  The many faces of configural processing , 2002, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[67]  Pawan Sinha,et al.  Qualitative Representations for Recognition , 2002, Biologically Motivated Computer Vision.

[68]  D. Maurer,et al.  Configural Face Processing Develops more Slowly than Featural Face Processing , 2002, Perception.

[69]  P. Sinha,et al.  Contribution of Color to Face Recognition , 2002, Perception.

[70]  A. O'Toole,et al.  Recognizing moving faces: a psychological and neural synthesis , 2002, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[71]  Rachel A Robbins,et al.  Can holistic processing be learned for inverted faces? , 2003, Cognition.

[72]  C. Liu,et al.  Face recognition is robust with incongruent image resolution: relationship to security video images. , 2003, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[73]  Bruno A Olshausen,et al.  Timecourse of neural signatures of object recognition. , 2003, Journal of vision.

[74]  P. Sinha,et al.  The Role of Eyebrows in Face Recognition , 2003, Perception.

[75]  C. Clifford,et al.  Pulling Faces: An Investigation of the Face-Distortion Aftereffect , 2003, Perception.

[76]  Michael B. Lewis,et al.  Thatcher's Children: Development and the Thatcher Illusion , 2003, Perception.

[77]  D. Maurer,et al.  Developmental changes in face processing skills. , 2003, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[78]  G. Rhodes,et al.  Holistic Processing of Faces in Preschool Children and Adults , 2003, Psychological science.

[79]  Alice J. O'Toole,et al.  Human recognition of familiar and unfamiliar people in naturalistic video , 2003, 2003 IEEE International SOI Conference. Proceedings (Cat. No.03CH37443).

[80]  K. Nakayama,et al.  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Research Article FITTING THE MIND TO THE WORLD: Face Adaptation and Attractiveness Aftereffects , 2022 .

[81]  H. Bülthoff,et al.  The use of facial motion and facial form during the processing of identity , 2003, Vision Research.

[82]  M. Riesenhuber,et al.  Face processing in humans is compatible with a simple shape–based model of vision , 2004, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[83]  M. Webster,et al.  Adaptation to natural facial categories , 2002, Nature.

[84]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The fusiform face area subserves face perception, not generic within-category identification , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[85]  D. Perrett,et al.  Visual neurones responsive to faces in the monkey temporal cortex , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[86]  R. Dolan,et al.  fMRI-adaptation reveals dissociable neural representations of identity and expression in face perception. , 2004, Journal of neurophysiology.

[87]  A. Young,et al.  Understanding the recognition of facial identity and facial expression , 2005, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[88]  A. Little,et al.  Sex-contingent face after-effects suggest distinct neural populations code male and female faces , 2005, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[89]  K. Lander,et al.  Why are moving faces easier to recognize? , 2005, Visual Cognition.

[90]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  Does the human brain process objects of expertise like faces? A review of the evidence , 2005 .

[91]  Y. Lacasse,et al.  From the authors , 2005, European Respiratory Journal.

[92]  I. Biederman,et al.  Is Pigmentation Important for Face Recognition? Evidence from Contrast Negation , 2006, Perception.

[93]  I. Biederman,et al.  The utility of surface reflectance for the recognition of upright and inverted faces , 2007, Vision Research.

[94]  Susan E. Brennan,et al.  From the Leonardo Archive , 2007, Leonardo.

[95]  Kannan,et al.  ON IMAGE SEGMENTATION TECHNIQUES , 2022 .