Explaining Paradoxical Relations Between Academic Self-Concepts and Achievements: Cross-Cultural Generalizability of the Internal/External Frame of Reference Predictions Across 26 Countries.

The internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model explains a seemingly paradoxical pattern of relations between math and verbal self-concepts and corresponding measures of achievement, extends social comparison theory, and has important educational implications. In a cross-cultural study of nationally representative samples of 15-year-olds from 26 countries (total N = 55,577), I/E predictions were supported in that (a) math and verbal achievements were highly correlated, but math and verbal self-concepts were nearly uncorrelated; (b) math achievement had positive effects on math self-concept, but negative effects on verbal self-concept; and (c) verbal achievement had positive effects on verbal self-concept, but negative effects on math self-concept. Supporting the cross-cultural generalizability of predictions, multigroup structural equation models demonstrated good support for the generalizability of results across 26 countries participating in the Programme for International Student Assessment project sponsored by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.