District heating systems in Europe. A review

Abstract Components of a city's energy supply are analyzed in terms of particular users' needs and fuels consumed. The paper describes international philosophies and experiences from the oil shock of 1973 to the present situation, and future perspectives. The countries described are the Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden, Finland, Denmark and France. The role of a municipal energy authority is discussed. Important features taken into account are the share of district heating in the European market, the share of energy sources and the number and length of networks.