Stress hormones in health and illness: The roles of work and gender

Two neuroendocrine systems are of specific interest in the study of stress and health; the sympathetic adrenomedullary system with the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine, and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical (HPA) system with the secretion of cortisol. These hormones have often been used as objective indicators of stress in the individual. However, through their bodily effects, they are also a link between the psychosocial environment and various health outcomes. From a series of studies of women and men, it was concluded that gender roles and psychological factors are more important than biological factors for the sex differences in stress responses. The stress responses have been important for human and animal survival and for protection of the body. However, in modern society, some of these bodily responses may cause harm rather than protection. The catecholamines have been linked to cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, myocardial infarction and stroke, cortisol to cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, reduced immune function and cognitive impairment. An adequate balance between catabolic (mobilization of energy) and anabolic processes (growth, healing) is considered necessary for long term health and survival. In modern society, which is characterized by a rapid pace of life, high demands, efficiency and competitiveness in a global economy, it is likely that lack of rest, recovery and restitution is a greater health problem than the absolute level of stress.

[1]  B. Folkow Physiological aspects of primary hypertension. , 1982, Physiological reviews.

[2]  Mats Fredrikson,et al.  Stress on and off the job as related to sex and occupational status in white‐collar workers , 1989 .

[3]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine activity in preschool children: comparison between day-care and home levels. , 1993, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[4]  Anders G. Olsson,et al.  Attenuated cortisol response to a standardized stress test in lithuanian versus swedish men: The livicordia study , 1998, International journal of behavioral medicine.

[5]  B. Folkow Physiological Organization of Neurohormonal Responses to Psychosocial Stimuli: Implications for Health and Disease , 1993 .

[6]  C. Kirschbaum,et al.  Salivary cortisol in psychobiological research: an overview. , 1989, Neuropsychobiology.

[7]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Psychophysiological stress responses in postmenopausal women before and after hormonal replacement therapy. , 1982, Human neurobiology.

[8]  U. Lundberg Human psychobiology in Scandinavia: II. Psychoneuroendocrinology--human stress and coping processes. , 1984, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[9]  M. Gass Hormonal replacement therapy. , 1999, Southern medical journal.

[10]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Stress and workload of men and women in high-ranking positions. , 1999, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[11]  R. Sapolsky Why Stress Is Bad for Your Brain , 1996, Science.

[12]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Is low cortisol release an indicator of positive health , 2002 .

[13]  B. McEwen Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[14]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Hirsute women with elevated androgen levels: Psychological characteristics, steroid hormones, and catecholamines , 1983 .

[15]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Stress and health risks in repetitive work and supervisory monitoring work : Engineering Psychophysiology: Issues and Applications , 2000 .

[16]  T. Dembroski,et al.  Biobehavioral bases of coronary heart disease , 1983 .

[17]  R. Sitruk-Ware Hormonal Replacement Therapy , 2002, Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders.

[18]  J P Henry,et al.  Biological basis of the stress response. , 1993, Integrative physiological and behavioral science : the official journal of the Pavlovian Society.

[19]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Workload and morning salivary cortisol in women , 2002 .

[20]  H. Eriksen,et al.  Are subjective health complaints a result of modern civilization? , 2004, International journal of behavioral medicine.

[21]  U. Lundberg,et al.  The total workload of male and female white collar workers as related to age, occupational level, and number of children. , 1994, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[22]  Donald E. Broadbent,et al.  Stress and Distress in Response to Psychosocial Stimuli , 1973 .

[23]  Larry J. Siever,et al.  Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: A chronobiological analysis , 1996, Biological Psychiatry.

[24]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Catecholamine and cortisol reaction to childbirth , 2001 .

[25]  U. Lundberg,et al.  Workload and catecholamine excretion in parents of preschool children , 1989 .

[26]  M. Frankenhaeuser,et al.  Stress responses in male and female engineering students. , 1978, Journal of human stress.

[27]  M Frankenhaeuser,et al.  Catecholamine and cortisol excretion patterns in three-year-old children and their parents. , 1981, Journal of human stress.

[28]  U. Lundberg Influence of paid and unpaid work on psychophysiological stress responses of men and women. , 1996, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[29]  H. Eriksen,et al.  Psychobiological mechanisms of socioeconomic differences in health. , 2004, Social science & medicine.