Restoration Biology: A Population Biology Perspective

A major goal of population biologists involved in restoration work is to restore populations to a level that will allow them to persist over the long term within a dynamic landscape and include the ability to undergo adaptive evolutionary change. We discuss five research areas of particular importance to restoration biology that offer potentially unique opportunities to couple basic research with the practical needs of restorationists. The five research areas are: (1) the influence of numbers of individuals and genetic variation in the initial population on population colonization, establishment, growth, and evolutionary potential; (2) the role of local adaptation and life history traits in the success of restored populations; (3) the influence of the spatial arrangement of landscape elements on metapopulation dynamics and population processes such as migration; (4) the effects of genetic drift, gene flow, and selection on population persistence within an often accelerated, successional time frame; and (5) the influence of interspecific interactions on population dynamics and community development. We also provide a sample of practical problems faced by practitioners, each of which encompasses one or more of the research areas discussed, and that may be solved by addressing fundamental research questions.

[1]  D. Falconer,et al.  Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. , 1962 .

[2]  D. Roubik,et al.  Ecology and natural history of tropical bees: Extant families, subfamilies, tribes, genera, and subgenera of the Apoidea: a partial checklist , 1989 .

[3]  Michael E. Gilpin,et al.  Viable Populations for Conservation: Spatial structure and population vulnerability , 1987 .

[4]  Michael F. Allen,et al.  The ecology of mycorrhizae , 1990 .

[5]  M. Rejmánek.  A theory of seed plant invasiveness: The first sketch , 1996 .

[6]  A. D. Bradshaw,et al.  Evolutionary Significance of Phenotypic Plasticity in Plants , 1965 .

[7]  S. Wright,et al.  Isolation by Distance. , 1943, Genetics.

[8]  Joan L. Walker,et al.  Approximating Nature's Variation: Selecting and Using Reference Information in Restoration Ecology , 1997 .

[9]  C. Millar,et al.  Strategies for Conserving Clinal, Ecotypic, and Disjunct Population Diversiv in Widespread Species , 1991 .

[10]  R. Lacy.  Loss of Genetic Diversity from Managed Populations: Interacting Effects of Drift, Mutation, Immigration, Selection, and Population Subdivision , 1987 .

[11]  C. Whelan,et al.  Restoration of Endangered Species: Taxonomic Index , 1994 .

[12]  Christopher P. Dunn,et al.  Restoring diversity: strategies for reintroduction of endangered plants. , 1997 .

[13]  P. Leberg.  Strategies for population reintroduction: effects of genetic variability on population growth and size , 1993 .

[14]  Lonnie W. Aarssen,et al.  Vegetation dynamics and neighbour associations in pasture-community evolution. , 1985 .

[15]  A. Montalvo.  Inbreeding Depression and Maternal Effects in Aquilegia Caerulea, a Partially Selfing Plant , 1994 .

[16]  C. Millar,et al.  Disneyland or Native Ecosystem: Genetics and the Restorationist , 1989, Restoration & Management Notes.

[17]  Steven N. Handel,et al.  Biodiversity Resources for Restoration Ecology , 1994 .

[18]  Susan L. Williams,et al.  Population Genetic Analyses of Transplanted Eelgrass (Zostera marina) Beds Reveal Reduced Genetic Diversity in Southern California , 1996 .

[19]  M. Gilpin,et al.  Minimum viable populations : Processes of species extinction , 1986 .

[20]  G. E. Hutchinson,et al.  The ecological theater and the evolutionary play , 1965 .

[21]  L. Nunney,et al.  Estimating the effective population size of conserved populations , 1994 .

[22]  O. Solbrig,et al.  Demography and Evolution in Plant Populations , 1980 .

[23]  M. Nei,et al.  Genetic variation in subdivided populations and conservation genetics , 1986, Heredity.

[24]  K. Holsinger,et al.  Genetic and evolutionary consequences of small population size in plants : implications for conservation , 1991 .

[25]  Eric E. Knapp,et al.  Starting from Seed , 1994, Restoration & Management Notes.

[26]  D. Wake,et al.  Measuring gene flow among populations having high levels of genetic fragmentation. , 1984, Genetics.

[27]  E. Mayr,et al.  Climatic Races in Plants and Animals@@@Experimental Studies on the Nature of Species. III. Environmental Responses of Climatic Races of Achillea. , 1948 .

[28]  K. Holsinger,et al.  Genetics and conservation of rare plants. , 1991 .

[29]  B. Husband,et al.  The genetics of plant migration and colonization , 1990 .

[30]  J. Quinn,et al.  Habitat fragmentation, species diversity, extinction, and design of nature reserves , 1992 .

[31]  M. Willson.  Dispersal mode, seed shadows, and colonization patterns , 1993 .

[32]  E. C. Townsend,et al.  Stabilization and Erosion Control Value of Oyster Cultch for Intertidal Marsh , 1997 .

[33]  B. Weir,et al.  Allozyme diversity in plant species. , 1990 .

[34]  John A. Endler.  Geographic Variation, Speciation and Clines. , 1977 .

[35]  A. Bradshaw,et al.  Evolution and pollution , 1981 .

[36]  R. Lande.  RISK OF POPULATION EXTINCTION FROM FIXATION OF NEW DELETERIOUS MUTATIONS , 1994, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[37]  Eric S. Menges,et al.  Population Viability Analysis for an Endangered Plant , 1990 .

[38]  R. W. Wolfe,et al.  Accelerating forest succession in a fragmented landscape: the role of birds and perches , 1993 .

[39]  E. Guerrant,et al.  Genetic and Demographic Considerations in the Sampling and Reintroduction of Rare Plants , 1992 .

[40]  M. Slatkin.  Gene flow and selection in a cline. , 1973, Genetics.

[41]  D. Norton.  Trilepidea adamsii: An Obituary for a Species , 1991 .

[42]  N. Ellstrand,et al.  POPULATION GENETIC CONSEQUENCES OF SMALL POPULATION SIZE: Implications for Plant Conservation , 1993 .

[43]  Andre F. Clewell,et al.  What Practitioners Need from Restoration Ecologists , 1997 .

[44]  A. Hoffmann,et al.  Evolutionary Genetics and Environmental Stress , 1991 .

[45]  Marcella M. Demauro.  Restoration of Endangered Species: Development and implementation of a recovery program for the federally threatened Lakeside daisy ( Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra ) , 1994 .

[46]  C. Schlichting,et al.  Phenotypic plasticity: an evolving plant character , 1986 .

[47]  William L. Wagner,et al.  Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai'i , 1999 .

[48]  D. Doak,et al.  Spotted owls and old growth logging in the pacific northwest. , 1989, Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology.

[49]  S. Bell,et al.  Linking Restoration and Landscape Ecology , 1997 .

[50]  K. Holsinger,et al.  Ecological implications of genetic variation in plant populations. , 1991 .

[51]  J. Kitzmiller.  Managing genetic diversity in a tree improvement program , 1990 .

[52]  D. Nickrent,et al.  The recovery of an endangered plant. I. Creating a new population of Amsinckia grandiflora , 1993 .

[53]  The Evolutionary Biology of Colonizing Species , 1983 .

[54]  T. Dobzhansky.  Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution , 1973 .

[55]  Lonnie W. Aarssen,et al.  Biotic specialization between neighbouring genotypes in Lolium perenne and Trifolium repens from a permanent pasture , 1985 .

[56]  Deborah Charlesworth,et al.  INBREEDING DEPRESSION AND ITS EVOLUTIONARY CONSEQUENCES , 1987 .

[57]  A. Beattie.  The evolutionary ecology of ant-plant mutualisms , 1986 .

[58]  M. Conkle.  Growth Data for 29 Years from the California Elevational Transect Study of Ponderosa Pine , 1973 .

[59]  J. Heywood.  The Effect of Plant Size Variation on Genetic Drift in Populations of Annuals , 1986, The American Naturalist.

[60]  Ingrid M. Parker,et al.  Evaluating approaches to the conservation of rare and endangered plants , 1994 .

[61]  L. Loope,et al.  Impacts of Biological Invasions on the Management and Recovery of Rare Plants in Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaiian Islands , 1994 .

[62]  L. Nunney,et al.  Assessing minimum viable population size: Demography meets population genetics. , 1993, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[63]  J. Clausen,et al.  Effect of varied environments on western North American plants , 1940 .

[64]  Jody Hey,et al.  Principles of population genetics (2nd edn) , 1989 .

[65]  S. Via.  Genetic Constraints on the Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity , 1987 .

[66]  M. C. Grant,et al.  EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF LOCAL GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION IN PLANTS , 1996 .

[67]  N. Waser,et al.  Population structure, optimal outbreeding, and assortative mating in angiosperms. , 1993 .

[68]  R. Lande.  Genetics and demography in biological conservation. , 1988, Science.

[69]  C. Fenster,et al.  Restoration of Endangered Species: Genetic considerations for plant population restoration and conservation , 1994 .

[70]  D. Boucher.  The Biology of mutualism :: ecology and evolution , 1985 .

[71]  Steven N. Handel,et al.  Forest Restoration on a Closed Landfill: Rapid Addition of New Species by Bird Dispersal , 1993 .

[72]  M. Bowles.  Restoration of Endangered Species: Conceptual Issues, Planning and Implementation , 1996 .

[73]  Bruce Wallace.  Topics in population genetics. , 1968 .

[74]  S. Scheiner,et al.  Phenotypic flexibility and genetic adaptation along a gradient of secondary forest succession in the grass Danthonia spicata , 1986 .

[75]  Richard J. Hobbs,et al.  Towards a Conceptual Framework for Restoration Ecology , 1996 .

[76]  S WRIGHT,et al.  Genetical structure of populations. , 1950, Nature.

[77]  A. Hastings,et al.  Metapopulation Dynamics and Genetics , 1994 .

[78]  Judith L. Bronstein,et al.  The plant—pollinator landscape , 1995 .

[79]  Montgomery Slatkin,et al.  Gene Flow in Natural Populations , 1985 .

[80]  N. Ellstrand,et al.  Interpopulation Gene Flow by Pollen in Wild Radish, Raphanus sativus , 1985, The American Naturalist.

[81]  R. A. Smith,et al.  THE USE OF METAL TOLERANT PLANT POPULATIONS FOR THE RECLAMATION OF METALLIFEROUS WASTES , 1979 .

[82]  R. Lande,et al.  HIGH INBREEDING DEPRESSION, SELECTIVE INTERFERENCE AMONG LOCI, AND THE THRESHOLD SELFING RATE FOR PURGING RECESSIVE LETHAL MUTATIONS , 1994, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[83]  B. Pavlik.  Restoration of Endangered Species: Demographic monitoring and the recovery of endangered plant populations , 1994 .

[84]  J. Harper.  Population Biology of Plants , 1979 .

[85]  C. Augspurger.  Reproductive Synchrony of a Tropical Shrub: Experimental Studies on Effects of Pollinators and Seed Predators in Hybanthus Prunifolius (Violaceae) , 1981 .

[86]  D. Levin,et al.  THE COMPARATIVE DEMOGRAPHY OF RECIPROCALLY SOWN POPULATIONS OF PHLOX DRUMMONDII HOOK. I. SURVIVORSHIPS, FECUNDITIES, AND FINITE RATES OF INCREASE , 1985, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[87]  T. Brown,et al.  The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants. , 1996, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[88]  G. Nabhan,et al.  Services provided by pollinators , 1997 .

[89]  R. Lande,et al.  Viable Populations for Conservation: Effective population size, genetic variation, and their use in population management , 1987 .

[90]  M. Kent,et al.  The Restoration of Land: The Ecology and Reclamation of Derelict and Degraded Land. , 1982 .

[91]  J. Endler.  Natural selection in the wild , 1987 .

[92]  Leslie A. Real,et al.  The Sustainable Biosphere Initiative: An Ecological Research Agenda: A Report from the Ecological Society of America , 1991 .

[93]  K. Rice.  Reproductive hierarchies in Erodium : effects of variation in plant density and rainfall distribution , 1990 .

[94]  Gary Paul Nabhan,et al.  The Forgotten Pollinators , 1996 .

[95]  J. Clausen,et al.  Heredity of Geographically and Ecologically Isolated Races , 1947, The American Naturalist.