Demographic Analysis from Biometric Data: Achievements, Challenges, and New Frontiers

Biometrics is the technique of automatically recognizing individuals based on their biological or behavioral characteristics. Various biometric traits have been introduced and widely investigated, including fingerprint, iris, face, voice, palmprint, gait and so forth. Apart from identity, biometric data may convey various other personal information, covering affect, age, gender, race, accent, handedness, height, weight, etc. Among these, analysis of demographics (age, gender, and race) has received tremendous attention owing to its wide real-world applications, with significant efforts devoted and great progress achieved. This survey first presents biometric demographic analysis from the standpoint of human perception, then provides a comprehensive overview of state-of-the-art advances in automated estimation from both academia and industry. Despite these advances, a number of challenging issues continue to inhibit its full potential. We second discuss these open problems, and finally provide an outlook into the future of this very active field of research by sharing some promising opportunities.

[1]  Mircea Nicolescu,et al.  Gender classification from hand shape , 2008, 2008 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops.

[2]  Luc Van Gool,et al.  Deep Expectation of Real and Apparent Age from a Single Image Without Facial Landmarks , 2016, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[3]  P. Ptacek,et al.  Age recognition from voice. , 1966, Journal of speech and hearing research.

[4]  Arun Ross,et al.  What Else Does Your Biometric Data Reveal? A Survey on Soft Biometrics , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[5]  Guodong Guo,et al.  Gender from Body: A Biologically-Inspired Approach with Manifold Learning , 2009, ACCV.

[6]  R. Fitzpatrick,et al.  Age-related differences in walking stability. , 2003, Age and ageing.

[7]  Hui Gao,et al.  Gender Recognition from Walking Movements using Adaptive Three-Mode PCA , 2004, 2004 Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop.

[8]  S. Linville,et al.  Acoustic characteristics of perceived versus actual vocal age in controlled phonation by adult females. , 1985, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[9]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  Iris Image Classification Based on Hierarchical Visual Codebook , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[10]  Jiwen Lu,et al.  Uncorrelated discriminant simplex analysis for view-invariant gait signal computing , 2010, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[11]  Johannes Wagner,et al.  Age and gender classification from speech using decision level fusion and ensemble based techniques , 2010, INTERSPEECH.

[12]  Maria Klara Wolters,et al.  Age recognition for spoken dialogue systems: do we need it? , 2009, INTERSPEECH.

[13]  Guodong Guo,et al.  A framework for joint estimation of age, gender and ethnicity on a large database , 2014, Image Vis. Comput..

[14]  Ming Li,et al.  Combining five acoustic level modeling methods for automatic speaker age and gender recognition , 2010, INTERSPEECH.

[15]  Shree K. Nayar,et al.  FaceTracer: A Search Engine for Large Collections of Images with Faces , 2008, ECCV.

[16]  Wei Gao,et al.  Face Gender Classification on Consumer Images in a Multiethnic Environment , 2009, ICB.

[17]  Arun Kumar Agnihotri,et al.  Determination Of Sex By Hand Dimensions , 2005 .

[18]  Yasushi Makihara,et al.  Gait Analysis of Gender and Age Using a Large-Scale Multi-view Gait Database , 2010, ACCV.

[19]  José Miguel Buenaposada,et al.  Robust gender recognition by exploiting facial attributes dependencies , 2014, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[20]  Chiou-Ting Hsu,et al.  Subspace Learning for Facial Age Estimation Via Pairwise Age Ranking , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[21]  Xiaoou Tang,et al.  Learning to Recognize Pedestrian Attribute , 2015, ArXiv.

[22]  Bingbing Ni,et al.  Learning universal multi-view age estimator using video context , 2011, 2011 International Conference on Computer Vision.

[23]  A. M. Burton,et al.  What's the Difference between Men and Women? Evidence from Facial Measurement , 1993, Perception.

[24]  Xuelong Li,et al.  Gait Components and Their Application to Gender Recognition , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and Reviews).

[25]  Hongyuan Zha,et al.  Learning distance metric for regression by semidefinite programming with application to human age estimation , 2009, ACM Multimedia.

[26]  Shinichi Tamura,et al.  Male/female identification from 8×6 very low resolution face images by neural network , 1996, Pattern Recognit..

[27]  Guodong Guo,et al.  Human age estimation: What is the influence across race and gender? , 2010, 2010 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition - Workshops.

[28]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  Ethnic Classification Based on Iris Images , 2011, CCBR.

[29]  Claudio A. Perez,et al.  Gender Classification from Iris Images Using Fusion of Uniform Local Binary Patterns , 2014, ECCV Workshops.

[30]  Rama Chellappa,et al.  A hierarchical approach for human age estimation , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP).

[31]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  50 years of biometric research: Accomplishments, challenges, and opportunities , 2016, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[32]  Keikichi Hirose,et al.  Automatic estimation of one's age with his/her speech based upon acoustic modeling techniques of speakers , 2002, 2002 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing.

[33]  Marimuthu Palaniswami,et al.  Support vector machines for automated gait classification , 2005, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[34]  Shuicheng Yan,et al.  Extracting age information from local spatially flexible patches , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing.

[35]  Sergio Escalera,et al.  ChaLearn looking at people 2015 new competitions: Age estimation and cultural event recognition , 2015, 2015 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN).

[36]  Matti Pietikäinen,et al.  Demographic classification from face videos using manifold learning , 2013, Neurocomputing.

[37]  P. Gnanasivam,et al.  Fingerprint Gender Classification using Wavelet Transform and Singular Value Decomposition , 2012, ArXiv.

[38]  Ming Li,et al.  An Experimental Study on Automatic Face Gender Classification , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[39]  Björn W. Schuller,et al.  Paralinguistics in speech and language - State-of-the-art and the challenge , 2013, Comput. Speech Lang..

[40]  Thomas S. Huang,et al.  Face age estimation using patch-based hidden Markov model supervectors , 2008, 2008 19th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[41]  Yun Fu,et al.  Image-Based Human Age Estimation by Manifold Learning and Locally Adjusted Robust Regression , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing.

[42]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  A Study on Gait-Based Gender Classification , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing.

[43]  S. Md. Mansoor Roomi,et al.  Race Classification Based on Facial Features , 2011, 2011 Third National Conference on Computer Vision, Pattern Recognition, Image Processing and Graphics.

[44]  Ming Yang,et al.  Correspondence driven adaptation for human profile recognition , 2011, CVPR 2011.

[45]  Changsheng Li,et al.  Learning ordinal discriminative features for age estimation , 2012, 2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[46]  Xiaoming Liu,et al.  Demographic Estimation from Face Images: Human vs. Machine Performance , 2015, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[47]  Yun Fu,et al.  Gender recognition from body , 2008, ACM Multimedia.

[48]  Bao-Liang Lu,et al.  Multi-view Gender Classification Using Local Binary Patterns and Support Vector Machines , 2006, ISNN.

[49]  Rama Chellappa,et al.  HyperFace: A Deep Multi-Task Learning Framework for Face Detection, Landmark Localization, Pose Estimation, and Gender Recognition , 2019, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[50]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Age estimation using Active Appearance Models and Support Vector Machine regression , 2009, 2009 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems.

[51]  Harry Hollien,et al.  Speaking fundamental frequency characteristics as a function of age and professional singing , 1991 .

[52]  Christian A. Müller,et al.  Combining short-term cepstral and long-term pitch features for automatic recognition of speaker age , 2007, INTERSPEECH.

[53]  Felix A. Wichmann,et al.  Gender Classification of Human Faces , 2002, Biologically Motivated Computer Vision.

[54]  Liming Chen,et al.  Facial ethnicity classification based on boosted local texture and shape descriptions , 2013, 2013 10th IEEE International Conference and Workshops on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FG).

[55]  D. Cunningham,et al.  Age-related changes in speed of walking. , 1988, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[56]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Towards Person Identification and Re-identification with Attributes , 2012, ECCV Workshops.

[57]  J. Dugelay,et al.  Demographic classification: Do gender and ethnicity affect each other? , 2012, 2012 International Conference on Informatics, Electronics & Vision (ICIEV).

[58]  Yiding Wang,et al.  Combining Spatial and Temporal Information for Gait Based Gender Classification , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[59]  W. Eric L. Grimson,et al.  Gait analysis for recognition and classification , 2002, Proceedings of Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face Gesture Recognition.

[60]  James W. Davis,et al.  Visual Categorization of Children and Adult Walking Styles , 2001, AVBPA.

[61]  Yunhong Wang,et al.  Gender Classification Based on Fusion of Multi-view Gait Sequences , 2007, ACCV.

[62]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  A Framework for Evaluating the Effect of View Angle, Clothing and Carrying Condition on Gait Recognition , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[63]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[64]  Mohamed Abdel-Mottaleb,et al.  Gender classification using 2-D ear images and sparse representation , 2013, 2013 IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV).

[65]  Paul C. Miller,et al.  Full body image feature representations for gender profiling , 2009, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops, ICCV Workshops.

[66]  Luís A. Alexandre,et al.  The UBIRIS.v2: A Database of Visible Wavelength Iris Images Captured On-the-Move and At-a-Distance , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[67]  Mark Boehmer,et al.  3-D landmark detection and identification in the CAESAR project , 2001, Proceedings Third International Conference on 3-D Digital Imaging and Modeling.

[68]  Marios Savvides,et al.  DeepGender: Occlusion and Low Resolution Robust Facial Gender Classification via Progressively Trained Convolutional Neural Networks with Attention , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW).

[69]  Chu-Song Chen,et al.  A Learning Framework for Age Rank Estimation Based on Face Images With Scattering Transform , 2015, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing.

[70]  Arun Ross,et al.  Impact of facial cosmetics on automatic gender and age estimation algorithms , 2014, 2014 International Conference on Computer Vision Theory and Applications (VISAPP).

[71]  Jordi Vitrià,et al.  Gender Recognition in Non Controlled Environments , 2006, 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR'06).

[72]  Björn W. Schuller,et al.  The INTERSPEECH 2010 paralinguistic challenge , 2010, INTERSPEECH.

[73]  Ming Liu,et al.  Regression from patch-kernel , 2008, 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[74]  Caifeng Shan,et al.  Learning local binary patterns for gender classification on real-world face images , 2012, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[75]  Tsuhan Chen,et al.  Estimating age, gender, and identity using first name priors , 2008, 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[76]  Ping Yan,et al.  Empirical Evaluation of Advanced Ear Biometrics , 2005, 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05) - Workshops.

[77]  Tomaso A. Poggio,et al.  Pedestrian detection using wavelet templates , 1997, Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[78]  Zhi-Hua Zhou,et al.  Automatic Age Estimation Based on Facial Aging Patterns , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[79]  Yasushi Makihara,et al.  Gait-based age estimation using a whole-generation gait database , 2011, 2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB).

[80]  G. Mather,et al.  Gender discrimination in biological motion displays based on dynamic cues , 1994, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[81]  Sergio Escalera,et al.  ChaLearn Looking at People 2015: Apparent Age and Cultural Event Recognition Datasets and Results , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshop (ICCVW).

[82]  K. Bowyer,et al.  Predicting ethnicity and gender from iris texture , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST).

[83]  Y Horii,et al.  Age and changes in vocal jitter. , 1980, Journal of gerontology.

[84]  Amit Jain,et al.  Integrating independent components and linear discriminant analysis for gender classification , 2004, Sixth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2004. Proceedings..

[85]  Albert Ali Salah,et al.  Combining Facial Dynamics With Appearance for Age Estimation , 2015, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing.

[86]  Antitza Dantcheva,et al.  Gender Estimation Based on Smile-Dynamics , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[87]  Xiaolong Wang,et al.  Age estimation via unsupervised neural networks , 2015, 2015 11th IEEE International Conference and Workshops on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FG).

[88]  Edwin R. Hancock,et al.  Facial gender classification using shape-from-shading , 2010, Image Vis. Comput..

[89]  Lei Chen,et al.  Gender Recognition from Gait Using Radon Transform and Relevant Component Analysis , 2009, ICIC.

[90]  Jiwen Lu,et al.  Gait-Based Human Age Estimation , 2010, IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur..

[91]  Jean-Luc Dugelay,et al.  Apparent Age Estimation from Face Images Combining General and Children-Specialized Deep Learning Models , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW).

[92]  Roope Raisamo,et al.  Evaluation of Gender Classification Methods with Automatically Detected and Aligned Faces , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[93]  Patrick J. Grother,et al.  Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT) - Performance of Automated Age Estimation Algorithms , 2014 .

[94]  Arun Ross,et al.  50 years of biometric research: Accomplishments, challenges, and opportunities , 2016, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[95]  Arun Ross,et al.  Evaluation of Texture Descriptors for Automated Gender Estimation from Fingerprints , 2014, ECCV Workshops.

[96]  Bok-Min Goi,et al.  Vision-based Human Gender Recognition: A Survey , 2012, ArXiv.

[97]  Xiaolong Wang,et al.  Deeply-Learned Feature for Age Estimation , 2015, 2015 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision.

[98]  Marios Savvides,et al.  A robust approach to facial ethnicity classification on large scale face databases , 2012, 2012 IEEE Fifth International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS).

[99]  Kang Ryoung Park,et al.  Age estimation using a hierarchical classifier based on global and local facial features , 2011, Pattern Recognit..

[100]  I. Titze.  Physiologic and acoustic differences between male and female voices. , 1989, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[101]  Richard W. Bohannon.  Comfortable and maximum walking speed of adults aged 20-79 years: reference values and determinants. , 1997, Age and ageing.

[102]  N. Troje.  Decomposing biological motion: a framework for analysis and synthesis of human gait patterns. , 2002, Journal of vision.

[103]  Vladimir N. Vapnik,et al.  The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory , 2000, Statistics for Engineering and Information Science.

[104]  Matthew Toews,et al.  Detection, Localization, and Sex Classification of Faces from Arbitrary Viewpoints and under Occlusion , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[105]  M. Melamed.  Detection , 2021, SETI: Astronomy as a Contact Sport.

[106]  Ioannis A. Kakadiaris,et al.  3D Face Discriminant Analysis Using Gauss-Markov Posterior Marginals , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[107]  W. Sheldon,et al.  The varieties of human physique : an introduction to constitutional psychology , 1941 .

[108]  Kevin W. Bowyer,et al.  Ethnicity Prediction Based on Iris Texture Features , 2011, MAICS.

[109]  Yuxiao Hu,et al.  Gender and ethnicity identification from silhouetted face profiles , 2009, 2009 16th IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP).

[110]  J. B. Pittenger,et al.  Wrinkling and head shape as coordinated sources of age-level information , 1980 .

[111]  Ashok Samal,et al.  Analysis of sexual dimorphism in human face , 2007, J. Vis. Commun. Image Represent..

[112]  Jean-Luc Dugelay,et al.  An Efficient LBP-Based Descriptor for Facial Depth Images Applied to Gender Recognition Using RGB-D Face Data , 2012, ACCV Workshops.

[113]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Soft Biometric Traits for Personal Recognition Systems , 2004, ICBA.

[114]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Cumulative Attribute Space for Age and Crowd Density Estimation , 2013, 2013 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[115]  Yun Fu,et al.  Human Age Estimation With Regression on Discriminative Aging Manifold , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Multimedia.

[116]  Matti Pietikäinen,et al.  Combining appearance and motion for face and gender recognition from videos , 2009, Pattern Recognit..

[117]  Norbert Krüger,et al.  Face Recognition and Gender determination , 1995 .

[118]  Ioannis A. Kakadiaris,et al.  Ethnicity- and Gender-based Subject Retrieval Using 3-D Face-Recognition Techniques , 2009, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[119]  Zhi-Hua Zhou,et al.  Facial Age Estimation by Learning from Label Distributions , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[120]  Karim Faez,et al.  Gender Classification Using a Novel Gait Template: Radon Transform of Mean Gait Energy Image , 2011, ICIAR.

[121]  Jian-Jiun Ding,et al.  Facial age estimation based on label-sensitive learning and age-oriented regression , 2013, Pattern Recognit..

[122]  Mohamed Daoudi,et al.  Exploring the Magnitude of Human Sexual Dimorphism in 3D Face Gender Classification , 2014, ECCV Workshops.

[123]  Karl Ricanek,et al.  MORPH: a longitudinal image database of normal adult age-progression , 2006, 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FGR06).

[124]  Mark S. Nixon,et al.  Gender Classification in Human Gait Using Support Vector Machine , 2005, ACIVS.

[125]  Tal Hassner,et al.  Age and Gender Estimation of Unfiltered Faces , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[126]  Suneeta Agarwal,et al.  Fingerprint Based Male-Female Classification , 2008, CISIS.

[127]  Elmar Nöth,et al.  Age and gender recognition based on multiple systems - early vs. late fusion , 2010, INTERSPEECH.

[128]  C. Christodoulou,et al.  Comparing different classifiers for automatic age estimation , 2004, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B (Cybernetics).

[129]  Mehryar Mohri,et al.  Voice signatures , 2003, 2003 IEEE Workshop on Automatic Speech Recognition and Understanding (IEEE Cat. No.03EX721).

[130]  Yan Li,et al.  A Study on Apparent Age Estimation , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshop (ICCVW).

[131]  Yunhong Wang,et al.  Gait-Based Gender Classification Using Mixed Conditional Random Field , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B (Cybernetics).

[132]  Subhransu Maji,et al.  Describing people: A poselet-based approach to attribute classification , 2011, 2011 International Conference on Computer Vision.

[133]  Bingbing Ni,et al.  Web image mining towards universal age estimator , 2009, ACM Multimedia.

[134]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  Fuzzy 3D Face Ethnicity Categorization , 2009, ICB.

[135]  Marc Rioux,et al.  Posture invariant gender classification for 3D human models , 2009, 2009 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops.

[136]  Stan Z. Li,et al.  Age Estimation by Multi-scale Convolutional Network , 2014, ACCV.

[137]  Marwan Mattar,et al.  Labeled Faces in the Wild: A Database forStudying Face Recognition in Unconstrained Environments , 2008 .

[138]  Volkan Atalay,et al.  PCA for gender estimation: which eigenvectors contribute? , 2002, Object recognition supported by user interaction for service robots.

[139]  Markus Iseli,et al.  The role of voice source measures on automatic gender classification , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing.

[140]  Patrick J. Flynn,et al.  Overview of the face recognition grand challenge , 2005, 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05).

[141]  Roope Raisamo,et al.  An experimental comparison of gender classification methods , 2008, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[142]  Lukás Burget,et al.  Brno university of technology system for interspeech 2010 paralinguistic challenge , 2010, INTERSPEECH.

[143]  Shaogang Gong,et al.  Fusing gait and face cues for human gender recognition , 2008, Neurocomputing.

[144]  Arun Ross,et al.  Multimodal biometrics: An overview , 2004, 2004 12th European Signal Processing Conference.

[145]  Min Chen,et al.  Discriminant Feature Manifold for Facial Aging Estimation , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[146]  Jean-Luc Dugelay,et al.  Minimalistic CNN-based ensemble model for gender prediction from face images , 2016, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[147]  Harry Wechsler,et al.  Mixture of experts for classification of gender, ethnic origin, and pose of human faces , 2000, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks Learn. Syst..

[148]  Tal Hassner,et al.  Face recognition in unconstrained videos with matched background similarity , 2011, CVPR 2011.

[149]  Andrew C. Gallagher,et al.  Understanding images of groups of people , 2009, 2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[150]  H. Ai,et al.  LUT-Based Adaboost for Gender Classification , 2003, AVBPA.

[151]  Masato Kawade,et al.  Ethnicity estimation with facial images , 2004, Sixth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2004. Proceedings..

[152]  Driss Aboutajdine,et al.  Boosting 3-D-Geometric Features for Efficient Face Recognition and Gender Classification , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[153]  Ali Jaoua,et al.  ICDAR 2013 Competition on Gender Prediction from Handwriting , 2013, 2013 12th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition.

[154]  Jitendra Ajmera,et al.  Age and gender classification using modulation cepstrum , 2008, Odyssey.

[155]  Guodong Guo,et al.  Simultaneous dimensionality reduction and human age estimation via kernel partial least squares regression , 2011, CVPR 2011.

[156]  Ching Y. Suen,et al.  Contourlet appearance model for facial age estimation , 2011, 2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB).

[157]  Kathleen M. Robinette,et al.  Gender Recognition Using 3-D Human Body Shapes , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and Reviews).

[158]  Rama Chellappa,et al.  Modeling Age Progression in Young Faces , 2006, 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'06).

[159]  Tai Sing Lee,et al.  Image Representation Using 2D Gabor Wavelets , 1996, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[160]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  Global Texture Analysis of Iris Images for Ethnic Classification , 2006, ICB.

[161]  Michael J. Carey,et al.  Language independent gender identification , 1996, 1996 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing Conference Proceedings.

[162]  Mohammed Yeasin,et al.  Support Vector Learning for Gender Classification Using Audio and Visual Cues , 2003, Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell..

[163]  Michael J. Lyons,et al.  Classifying facial attributes using a 2-D Gabor wavelet representation and discriminant analysis , 2000, Proceedings Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (Cat. No. PR00580).

[164]  Damon L. Woodard,et al.  Soft biometric classification using periocular region features , 2010, 2010 Fourth IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS).

[165]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Ethnicity identification from face images , 2004, SPIE Defense + Commercial Sensing.

[166]  Haizhou Ai,et al.  Demographic Classification with Local Binary Patterns , 2007, ICB.

[167]  Yi-Ping Hung,et al.  Ordinal hyperplanes ranker with cost sensitivities for age estimation , 2011, CVPR 2011.

[168]  José Salvador Sánchez,et al.  Towards a More Realistic Appearance-Based Gait Representation for Gender Recognition , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[169]  N. Lass,et al.  Speaker sex identification from voiced, whispered, and filtered isolated vowels. , 1974, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[170]  Abdenour Hadid,et al.  Analyzing Facial Behavioral Features from Videos , 2011, HBU.

[171]  Luís A. Alexandre.  Gender recognition: A multiscale decision fusion approach , 2010, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[172]  Xin Liu,et al.  AgeNet: Deeply Learned Regressor and Classifier for Robust Apparent Age Estimation , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshop (ICCVW).

[173]  K.W. Bowyer,et al.  Learning to predict gender from iris images , 2007, 2007 First IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems.

[174]  Atul Bansal,et al.  Predicting Gender Using Iris Images , 2014 .

[175]  Yoav Freund,et al.  A decision-theoretic generalization of on-line learning and an application to boosting , 1995, EuroCOLT.

[176]  Chen Wang,et al.  Local circular patterns for multi-modal facial gender and ethnicity classification , 2014, Image Vis. Comput..

[177]  Yoshua Bengio,et al.  Show, Attend and Tell: Neural Image Caption Generation with Visual Attention , 2015, ICML.

[178]  M. J. Muñoz-Cachón,et al.  Body shape in relation to socio-economic status in young adults from the basque Country. , 2007, Collegium antropologicum.

[179]  Isabel Trancoso,et al.  Age and gender classification using fusion of acoustic and prosodic features , 2010, INTERSPEECH.

[180]  Gang Wang,et al.  Human Identity and Gender Recognition From Gait Sequences With Arbitrary Walking Directions , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[181]  Claudio A. Perez,et al.  Gender Classification From the Same Iris Code Used for Recognition , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[182]  Sushil J. Louis,et al.  Genetic feature subset selection for gender classification: a comparison study , 2002, Sixth IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision, 2002. (WACV 2002). Proceedings..

[183]  Feng Gao,et al.  Face Age Classification on Consumer Images with Gabor Feature and Fuzzy LDA Method , 2009, ICB.

[184]  Tal Hassner,et al.  Age and gender classification using convolutional neural networks , 2015, 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW).

[185]  Florian Metze,et al.  Comparison of Four Approaches to Age and Gender Recognition for Telephone Applications , 2007, 2007 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing - ICASSP '07.

[186]  Theo Gevers,et al.  Learning-based encoding with soft assignment for age estimation under unconstrained imaging conditions , 2012, Image Vis. Comput..

[187]  Yang Feng,et al.  Do They All Look the Same? Deciphering Chinese, Japanese and Koreans by Fine-Grained Deep Learning , 2016, 2018 IEEE Conference on Multimedia Information Processing and Retrieval (MIPR).

[188]  A. O'Toole,et al.  Sex Classification is Better with Three-Dimensional Head Structure Than with Image Intensity Information , 1997, Perception.

[189]  Terrence J. Sejnowski,et al.  SEXNET: A Neural Network Identifies Sex From Human Faces , 1990, NIPS.

[190]  Yunhong Wang,et al.  Hierarchical and discriminative bag of features for face profile and ear based gender classification , 2011, 2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB).

[191]  Tieniu Tan,et al.  Learning Appearance Primitives of Iris Images for Ethnic Classification , 2007, 2007 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing.

[192]  Niels da Vitoria Lobo,et al.  Age classification from facial images , 1994, 1994 Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[193]  Ke Wu,et al.  Automatic recognition of gender by voice , 1988, ICASSP-88., International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing.

[194]  Arun Ross,et al.  Evaluation of gender classification methods on thermal and near-infrared face images , 2011, 2011 International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB).

[195]  A J O'Toole,et al.  More about the Difference between Men and Women: Evidence from Linear Neural Networks and the Principal-Component Approach , 1995, Perception.

[196]  Shengcai Liao,et al.  Multi-label CNN based pedestrian attribute learning for soft biometrics , 2015, 2015 International Conference on Biometrics (ICB).

[197]  Yu Qiao,et al.  Gender and Smile Classification Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW).

[198]  J. Cutting,et al.  Recognizing the sex of a walker from a dynamic point-light display , 1977 .

[199]  Shuicheng Yan,et al.  Learning Auto-Structured Regressor from Uncertain Nonnegative Labels , 2007, 2007 IEEE 11th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[200]  Shengcai Liao,et al.  Pedestrian Attribute Classification in Surveillance: Database and Evaluation , 2013, 2013 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops.

[201]  Haibin Ling,et al.  Age regression from faces using random forests , 2009, 2009 16th IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP).

[202]  Nicholas Costen,et al.  Sparse models for gender classification , 2004, Sixth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2004. Proceedings..

[203]  Jiajia Lei,et al.  Gender classification using automatically detected and aligned 3D ear range data , 2013, 2013 International Conference on Biometrics (ICB).

[204]  Yun Fu,et al.  Age Synthesis and Estimation via Faces: A Survey , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[205]  A. M. Burton,et al.  Sex Discrimination: How Do We Tell the Difference between Male and Female Faces? , 1993, Perception.

[206]  Ming-Hsuan Yang,et al.  Gender classification with support vector machines , 2000, Proceedings Fourth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (Cat. No. PR00580).

[207]  Ivan Laptev,et al.  Semi-supervised Learning of Facial Attributes in Video , 2010, ECCV Workshops.

[208]  Elmar Nöth,et al.  Age and gender recognition for telephone applications based on GMM supervectors and support vector machines , 2008, 2008 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing.

[209]  Harry Wechsler,et al.  Gender and ethnic classification of face images , 1998, Proceedings Third IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition.

[210]  R O Coleman,et al.  Male and female voice quality and its relationship to vowel formant frequencies. , 1971, Journal of speech and hearing research.

[211]  Xiu-Shen Wei,et al.  Deep Label Distribution Learning for Apparent Age Estimation , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshop (ICCVW).

[212]  S. Srihari,et al.  Demographic Classification Using Bagging and Boosting , 2005 .

[213]  Meng Wang,et al.  Facial Age Estimation With Age Difference , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing.

[214]  Arun Ross,et al.  An introduction to biometrics , 2008, ICPR 2008.

[215]  Dorin Comaniciu,et al.  Image based regression using boosting method , 2005, Tenth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV'05) Volume 1.

[216]  Yun Fu,et al.  Human age estimation using bio-inspired features , 2009, 2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[217]  Ahmed M. Badawi,et al.  Fingerprint-Based Gender Classification , 2006, IPCV.

[218]  Anahita Zarei,et al.  Artificial Neural Network for Prediction of Ethnicity Based on Iris Texture , 2012, 2012 11th International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications.

[219]  Yunus Saatci,et al.  Cascaded classification of gender and facial expression using active appearance models , 2006, 7th International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FGR06).

[220]  Brunelli Poggio,et al.  HyberBF Networks for Gender Classification , 1992 .

[221]  Oksam Chae,et al.  Gender Classification Using Local Directional Pattern (LDP) , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[222]  Timothy F. Cootes,et al.  Toward Automatic Simulation of Aging Effects on Face Images , 2002, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell..

[223]  Hassan Ugail,et al.  Gender Classification Based on 3D Face Geometry Features Using SVM , 2009, 2009 International Conference on CyberWorlds.

[224]  Nello Cristianini,et al.  Learning to classify gender from four million images , 2015, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[225]  Bir Bhanu,et al.  Individual recognition using gait energy image , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[226]  José Miguel Buenaposada,et al.  Revisiting Linear Discriminant Techniques in Gender Recognition , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[227]  Guodong Guo,et al.  A study of large-scale ethnicity estimation with gender and age variations , 2010, 2010 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition - Workshops.

[228]  Felix Burkhardt,et al.  A Database of Age and Gender Annotated Telephone Speech , 2010, LREC.

[229]  Yoav Freund,et al.  A decision-theoretic generalization of on-line learning and an application to boosting , 1997, EuroCOLT.

[230]  Paul A. Viola,et al.  A unified learning framework for real time face detection and classification , 2002, Proceedings of Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face Gesture Recognition.

[231]  Christian A. Müller,et al.  Exploiting speech for recognizing elderly users to respond to their special needs , 2003, INTERSPEECH.

[232]  Sergio Escalera,et al.  ChaLearn Looking at People and Faces of the World: Face AnalysisWorkshop and Challenge 2016 , 2016, 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW).

[233]  Thomas B. Moeslund,et al.  On soft biometrics , 2015, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[234]  Anil K. Jain,et al.  Multimodal Facial Gender and Ethnicity Identification , 2006, ICB.

[235]  Marcus Liwicki,et al.  Automatic detection of gender and handedness from on-line handwriting , 2007 .

[236]  Hyun-Chul Kim,et al.  Appearance-based gender classification with Gaussian processes , 2006, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[237]  Jiwen Lu,et al.  Ordinary Preserving Manifold Analysis for Human Age and Head Pose Estimation , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems.

[238]  Xiaogang Wang,et al.  Deep Learning Face Attributes in the Wild , 2014, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV).

[239]  Garrison W. Cottrell,et al.  EMPATH: Face, Emotion, and Gender Recognition Using Holons , 1990, NIPS.

[240]  K. Loewenthal,et al.  Inferring gender from handwriting in Urdu and English. , 1996, The Journal of social psychology.

[241]  Sudeep Sarkar,et al.  The humanID gait challenge problem: data sets, performance, and analysis , 2005, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[242]  Sargur N. Srihari,et al.  Group discriminatory power of handwritten characters , 2003, IS&T/SPIE Electronic Imaging.

[243]  Michael I. Jordan,et al.  Distance Metric Learning with Application to Clustering with Side-Information , 2002, NIPS.

[244]  Haibo He,et al.  Learning Race from Face: A Survey , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

[245]  Stan Z. Li,et al.  Handbook of Biometric Anti-Spoofing , 2014, Advances in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[246]  Yun Fu,et al.  Bimodal gender recognition from face and fingerprint , 2010, 2010 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition.

[247]  MITCHELL TRAURING,et al.  Automatic Comparison of Finger-Ridge Patterns , 1963, Nature.

[248]  R. K. Sharma,et al.  SVM Based Gender Classification Using Iris Images , 2012, 2012 Fourth International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks.

[249]  Marios Savvides,et al.  An exploration of gender identification using only the periocular region , 2010, 2010 Fourth IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS).

[250]  Lixin Duan,et al.  Hybrid constraint SVR for facial age estimation , 2014, Signal Process..

[251]  Damon L. Woodard,et al.  Soft biometric classification using local appearance periocular region features , 2012, Pattern Recognit..

[252]  Shree K. Nayar,et al.  Attribute and simile classifiers for face verification , 2009, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on Computer Vision.

[253]  Shumeet Baluja,et al.  Boosting Sex Identification Performance , 2005, International Journal of Computer Vision.

[254]  Wu Zhaohui,et al.  Combining MFCC and Pitch to Enhance the Performance of the Gender Recognition , 2006, 2006 8th international Conference on Signal Processing.