Skeletal dimensions as predictors for the shape of the nose in a South African sample: A cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) study.

The profile of the nose is an important feature for facial approximations. Although several manual and semi-automated prediction guidelines exist for estimating the shape of the nose, the reliability and applicability of these methods to South Africans groups are unknown. The aim of this study was to predict the displacements of capulometric landmarks from hard-tissue planes to facilitate nasal soft-tissue reconstruction in a South African sample. Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans of 120 adult South Africans were selected from the Oral and Dental Hospital, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Measurements involving craniometric and capulometric landmarks of the nose were obtained as plane-to-plane distances. Correlation coefficients between hard- and soft-tissue measurements were determined, and regression equations computed to assist in the prediction of the most probable shape and size of the nose. All hard- and soft-tissue measurements appeared significantly different between groups, except for the distance between the pronasale and nasion in the transverse plane and for the distance between the alare and the nasion in the coronal plane. The nasal height, nasal bone length and the nasal bone projection were significant predictors of the pronasale, subnasale and alare positions. More precisely, the nasal height and the nasal bone length were significant predictors of the pronasale position in both groups. Nasal bone projection was only useful for predicting shape in white South Africans. The variation in the skeletal predictors of the external shape of the nose noted between black and white South Africans and the results of the cross-validation testing emphasize the need for population specific guidelines.

[1]  Hertha De Villiers,et al.  The skull of the South African Negro : a biometrical and morphological study , 1968 .

[2]  Azriel Rosenfeld,et al.  Face recognition: A literature survey , 2003, CSUR.

[3]  M. Steyn,et al.  Forensic Anthropology as Practiced in South Africa , 2016 .

[4]  P. Becker,et al.  An evaluation of non-metric cranial traits used to estimate ancestry in a South African sample. , 2011, Forensic science international.

[5]  R Core Team,et al.  R: A language and environment for statistical computing. , 2014 .

[6]  M L Moss,et al.  A functional approach to craniology. , 1960, American journal of physical anthropology.

[7]  Jodi M Caple,et al.  A standardized nomenclature for craniofacial and facial anthropometry , 2015, International Journal of Legal Medicine.

[8]  E. Chronicle,et al.  You Can Tell by the Nose—Judging Sex from an Isolated Facial Feature , 1995, Perception.

[9]  Robert M. George,et al.  The Lateral Craniographic Method of Facial Reconstruction , 1987 .

[10]  G. Dahlberg,et al.  Statistical Methods for Medical and Biological Students , 1941, The Indian Medical Gazette.

[11]  Douglas H. Ubelaker,et al.  Reconstructing the Shape of the Nose According to the Skull , 2002 .

[12]  Christopher Rynn,et al.  Appraisal of traditional and recently proposed relationships between the hard and soft dimensions of the nose in profile. , 2006, American journal of physical anthropology.

[13]  V. Bruce,et al.  Recognizing objects and faces , 1994 .

[14]  Yves Rozenholc,et al.  A local technique based on vectorized surfaces for craniofacial reconstruction. , 2010, Forensic science international.

[15]  J. Hefner,et al.  Cranial Nonmetric Variation and Estimating Ancestry * , 2009, Journal of forensic sciences.

[16]  M. Steyn,et al.  Craniometric determination of population affinity in South Africans , 1999, International Journal of Legal Medicine.

[17]  A. Farman,et al.  What is cone-beam CT and how does it work? , 2008, Dental clinics of North America.

[18]  J. Brůžek,et al.  Dimorphisme sexuel du crâne de sujets identifiés (collection Olivier, MNHN, Paris): évaluation par morphométrie géométrique , 2010, Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris.

[19]  Michael W. Kenyhercz,et al.  An evaluation of nasal bone and aperture shape among three South African populations. , 2015, Forensic science international.

[20]  Pascal Desbarats,et al.  Anthropological Facial Approximation in Three Dimensions (AFA3D): Computer‐Assisted Estimation of the Facial Morphology Using Geometric Morphometrics , 2014, Journal of forensic sciences.

[21]  W. Atchley,et al.  A MODEL FOR DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF COMPLEX MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES , 1991, Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

[22]  W. M. Krogman.  The human skeleton in forensic medicine. I. , 1963, Postgraduate medicine.

[23]  M. Moss,et al.  The functional matrix hypothesis revisited. 4. The epigenetic antithesis and the resolving synthesis. , 1997, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[24]  P. O’Higgins,et al.  Comparing the Distribution of Strains with the Distribution of Bone Tissue in a Human Mandible: A Finite Element Study , 2013, Anatomical record.

[25]  M. Hans,et al.  Essentials of Facial Growth , 1996 .

[26]  M. Moss,et al.  The functional matrix hypothesis revisited. 2. The role of an osseous connected cellular network. , 1997, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[27]  Alexandra Rüdell,et al.  Analysis of the human osseous nasal shape--population differences and sexual dimorphism. , 2015, American journal of physical anthropology.

[28]  Christian Peter Klingenberg,et al.  Developmental integration in a complex morphological structure: how distinct are the modules in the mouse mandible? , 2003, Evolution & development.

[29]  D. Lieberman.  The Evolution of the Human Head , 2011 .

[30]  Michael W. Kenyhercz,et al.  Nasal aperture shape evaluation between black and white South Africans. , 2012, Forensic science international.

[31]  Carl N Stephan,et al.  Predicting nose projection and pronasale position in facial approximation: a test of published methods and proposal of new guidelines. , 2003, American journal of physical anthropology.

[32]  F. Demeter,et al.  Displacement of facial soft tissues in upright versus supine positions , 2015, Computer methods in biomechanics and biomedical engineering.

[33]  Bjørn-Helge Mevik,et al.  Mean squared error of prediction (MSEP) estimates for principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares regression (PLSR) , 2004 .

[34]  D. Lieberman,et al.  The evolution and development of cranial form in Homo sapiens , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[35]  友安 洋子.  Further evidence for an association between mandibular height and the growth hormone receptor gene in a Japanese population , 2009 .

[36]  Ron Kohavi,et al.  A Study of Cross-Validation and Bootstrap for Accuracy Estimation and Model Selection , 1995, IJCAI.

[37]  Chin-Chuan Han,et al.  Facial feature detection using geometrical face model: An efficient approach , 1998, Pattern Recognit..

[38]  E. Gladilin,et al.  Soft-Tissue Mobility of the Lower Face Depending on Positional Changes and Age: A Three-Dimensional Morphometric Surface Analysis , 2013, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[39]  P. Burman.  A comparative study of ordinary cross-validation, v-fold cross-validation and the repeated learning-testing methods , 1989 .

[40]  G. Macho,et al.  An appraisal of plastic reconstruction of the external nose. , 1986, Journal of forensic sciences.

[41]  M L Moss,et al.  The functional matrix hypothesis revisited. 3. The genomic thesis. , 1997, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[42]  T. Wingate Todd,et al.  Thickness of the subcutaneous tissues in the living and the dead , 1928 .

[43]  D. Altman,et al.  Comparing methods of measurement: why plotting difference against standard method is misleading , 1995, The Lancet.

[44]  M L Moss,et al.  The functional matrix hypothesis revisited. 1. The role of mechanotransduction. , 1997, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[45]  Won-Joon Lee,et al.  Three-dimensional prediction of the nose for facial reconstruction using cone-beam computed tomography. , 2014, Forensic science international.

[46]  F. Zonneveld,et al.  Linear measurements of cortical bone and dental enamel by computed tomography: applications and problems. , 1993, American journal of physical anthropology.

[47]  Johannes E. Schindelin,et al.  Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis , 2012, Nature Methods.

[48]  Milan Sonka,et al.  3D Slicer as an image computing platform for the Quantitative Imaging Network. , 2012, Magnetic resonance imaging.

[49]  Ituro Inoue,et al.  Further evidence for an association between mandibular height and the growth hormone receptor gene in a Japanese population. , 2009, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[50]  R. Jantz,et al.  Understanding race and human variation: why forensic anthropologists are good at identifying race. , 2009, American journal of physical anthropology.