Intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells.

High temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), typified by developers such as Siemens Westinghouse and Rolls-Royce, operate in the temperature region of 850-1000 degrees C. For such systems, very high efficiencies can be achieved from integration with gas turbines for large-scale stationary applications. However, high temperature operation means that the components of the stack need to be predominantly ceramic and high temperature metal alloys are needed for many balance-of-plant components. For smaller scale applications, where integration with a heat engine is not appropriate, there is a trend to move to lower temperatures of operation, into the so-called intermediate temperature (IT) range of 500-750 degrees C. This expands the choice of materials and stack geometries that can be used, offering reduced system cost and, in principle, reducing the corrosion rate of stack and system components. This review introduces the IT-SOFC and explains the advantages of operation in this temperature regime. The main advances made in materials chemistry that have made IT operation possible are described and some of the engineering issues and the new opportunities that reduced temperature operation affords are discussed. This tutorial review examines the advances being made in materials and engineering that are allowing solid oxide fuel cells to operate at lower temperature. The challenges and advantages of operating in the so-called 'intermediate temperature' range of 500-750 degrees C are discussed and the opportunities for applications not traditionally associated with solid oxide fuel cells are highlighted. This article serves as an introduction for scientists and engineers interested in intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells and the challenges and opportunities of reduced temperature operation.

[1]  Kevin Barraclough,et al.  I and i , 2001, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[2]  J. Fergus.  Metallic interconnects for solid oxide fuel cells , 2005 .

[3]  John T. S. Irvine,et al.  A redox-stable efficient anode for solid-oxide fuel cells , 2003, Nature materials.

[4]  Takashi Hibino,et al.  Recent advances in single-chamber solid oxide fuel cells: A review , 2007 .

[5]  Nguyen Q. Minh,et al.  Solid oxide fuel cell technology—features and applications , 2004 .

[6]  H. Iwahara,et al.  Proton Conduction in Sintered Oxides Based on BaCeO3 , 1988 .

[7]  Yvon Laligant,et al.  Designing fast oxide-ion conductors based on La2Mo2O 9 , 2000, Nature.

[8]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  Concept and system design for a ZEBRA battery-intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cell hybrid vehicle , 2006 .

[9]  S. Singhal.  Solid oxide fuel cells for stationary, mobile, and military applications , 2002 .

[10]  V. I. Ugursal,et al.  Residential cogeneration systems: Review of the current technology , 2006 .

[11]  S. Jiang,et al.  A review of anode materials development in solid oxide fuel cells , 2004 .

[12]  Adam Hawkes,et al.  Techno-economic modelling of a solid oxide fuel cell stack for micro combined heat and power , 2006 .

[13]  R. Gorte,et al.  Direct hydrocarbon solid oxide fuel cells. , 2004, Chemical reviews.

[14]  M. Islam,et al.  Solid state 29Si NMR studies of apatite-type oxide ion conductors , 2006 .

[15]  B. Steele,et al.  Material science and engineering: The enabling technology for the commercialisation of fuel cell systems , 2001 .

[16]  Wuzong Zhou,et al.  Disruption of extended defects in solid oxide fuel cell anodes for methane oxidation , 2006, Nature.

[17]  Stephen J. Skinner,et al.  Recent advances in Perovskite-type materials for solid oxide fuel cell cathodes , 2001 .

[18]  H. Inaba,et al.  Nonstoichiometry of Ce0.9Gd0.1O1.95−x , 1998 .

[19]  Michael Krumpelt,et al.  Materials for lower temperature solid oxide fuel cells , 2001 .

[20]  M. Islam,et al.  Developing apatites for solid oxide fuel cells: insight into structural, transport and doping properties , 2007 .

[21]  Tatsumi Ishihara,et al.  Doped LaGaO3 Perovskite Type Oxide as a New Oxide Ionic Conductor , 1994 .

[22]  R. Mark Ormerod.  Solid oxide fuel cells , 2003 .

[23]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[24]  N. Sammes,et al.  Physical, chemical and electrochemical properties of pure and doped ceria , 2000 .

[25]  B. Steele.  Materials for IT-SOFC stacks: 35 years R&D: the inevitability of gradualness? , 2000 .

[26]  R. Stephenson.  A and V , 1962, The British journal of ophthalmology.

[27]  Joyce Smith Cooper,et al.  Taxonomies of SOFC material and manufacturing alternatives , 2005 .

[28]  Brian C. H. Steele,et al.  Appraisal of Ce1−yGdyO2−y/2 electrolytes for IT-SOFC operation at 500°C , 2000 .

[29]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  Methanol as a direct fuel in intermediate temperature (500–600∘C) solid oxide fuel cells with copper based anodes , 2005 .

[30]  H. Iwahara,et al.  High temperature proton conducting oxides and their applications to solid electrolyte fuel cells and steam electrolyzer for hydrogen production , 1988 .

[31]  L. Gauckler,et al.  Perovskite cathodes for solid oxide fuel cells based on ceria electrolytes , 1996 .

[32]  S. Singhal,et al.  Advanced anodes for high-temperature fuel cells , 2004, Nature materials.

[33]  Jeffrey W. Fergus,et al.  Sealants for solid oxide fuel cells , 2005 .

[34]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  System modelling and integration of an intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cell and ZEBRA battery for automotive applications , 2006 .

[35]  H. Yoshioka,et al.  Magnesium doped lanthanum silicate with apatite-type structure as an electrolyte for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells , 2005 .

[36]  B. Steele.  Interfacial reactions associated with ceramic ion transport membranes , 1995 .

[37]  N. Brandon,et al.  Engineering porous materials for fuel cell applications , 2006, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[38]  John B. Goodenough.  Oxide-ion electrolytes , 2003 .

[39]  A. Kovalevsky,et al.  Ceria-based materials for solid oxide fuel cells , 2001 .

[40]  Christopher S. Johnson,et al.  Sulfur-tolerant anode materials for solid oxide fuel cell application , 2007 .