Perceptions of adolescents' racial discrimination experiences, racial identity, and depressive symptoms among Black American fathers.

Objective This study examined whether Black American fathers' perceptions of their adolescents' experiences of racial discrimination were related to fathers' depressive symptoms and if this association was moderated by fathers' racial identity beliefs and adolescent gender. Background Racial discrimination is not only an individual-level but also a family-level stressor for Black families. Racial discrimination experienced by parents can spillover to influence their children; however, fewer studies have examined how adolescents' discrimination experiences relate to parents' psychological outcomes, especially among Black fathers. Method Data were collected via online survey from 240 Black fathers (Mage = 45.93 years, SD = 8.72) of adolescents (Mage = 14.44 years, SD = 2.11) residing in the United States. Participants completed questions about their racial identity beliefs and depressive symptoms, as well as their adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination. Results Regression analyses revealed that adolescent-experienced racial discrimination was directly associated with fathers' depressive symptoms. Fathers whose race was more central to them (racial centrality) had higher depressive symptoms when their adolescents had high racial discrimination experiences. Also, fathers' beliefs about how Black people are viewed by society (public regard) moderated the relation between adolescent-experienced racial discrimination and fathers' depressive symptoms differently based on adolescent gender. Adolescent gender also moderated the relation between fathers' personal feelings about being Black (private regard) and their depressive symptoms. Conclusions Overall, fathers' beliefs about their race, as well as the gender of their adolescents, play a role in their psychological health when their adolescents experience discrimination.

[1]  J. Mattis,et al.  Dealing with discrimination: Parents' and adolescents' racial discrimination experiences and parenting in African American families. , 2020, Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology.

[2]  David R. Williams,et al.  The Intergenerational Transmission of Discrimination: Children’s Experiences of Unfair Treatment and Their Mothers’ Health at Midlife , 2019, Journal of health and social behavior.

[3]  Shauna M. Cooper,et al.  African American Fathers’ Race-Related Discussions with Their Children: Associations with Racial Identity Beliefs and Sociodemographic Factors , 2019, Journal of Child and Family Studies.

[4]  V. Murry.  Healthy African American Families in the 21st Century: Navigating Opportunities and Transcending Adversities , 2019, Family Relations.

[5]  T. Yip,et al.  Moderating the association between discrimination and adjustment: A meta-analysis of ethnic/racial identity. , 2019, Developmental psychology.

[6]  Tilicia L. Mayo-Gamble,et al.  Excavating New Constructs for Family Stress Theories in the Context of Everyday Life Experiences of Black American Families , 2018 .

[7]  David R. Williams,et al.  Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Mental Health in Mexican-Origin Youths and Their Parents: Testing the "Linked Lives" Hypothesis. , 2017, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[8]  A. Nuru-Jeter,et al.  The Role of Racial Identity and Implicit Racial Bias in Self-Reported Racial Discrimination: Implications for Depression Among African American Men , 2017, The Journal of black psychology.

[9]  F. Fincham,et al.  Parental experiences of racial discrimination and youth racial socialization in two-parent African American families. , 2016, Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology.

[10]  Dawn M Dow,et al.  Integrated Motherhood: Beyond Hegemonic Ideologies of Motherhood , 2016 .

[11]  T. Dishion,et al.  Pathways to Pain , 2015, The Journal of black psychology.

[12]  Shauna M. Cooper,et al.  African American Fathers' Racial Socialization Patterns: Associations with Racial Identity Beliefs and Discrimination Experiences , 2015 .

[13]  J. Mandara,et al.  Discrimination concerns and expectations as explanations for gendered socialization in African American families. , 2013, Child development.

[14]  Elisa R. Torres.  Psychometric Properties of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in African American and Black Caribbean US Adults , 2012, Issues in mental health nursing.

[15]  Brendesha M. Tynes,et al.  Online racial discrimination and the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem for African American adolescents. , 2012, Developmental psychology.

[16]  T. Griffin,et al.  School-Based Racial and Gender Discrimination among African American Adolescents: Exploring Gender Variation in Frequency and Implications for Adjustment , 2011, Race and social problems.

[17]  Anthony L. Burrow,et al.  Racial Identity as a Moderator of Daily Exposure and Reactivity to Racial Discrimination , 2010 .

[18]  H. Koo,et al.  "We're the heroes!": fathers' perspectives on their role in protecting their preteenage children from sexual risk. , 2010, Perspectives on sexual and reproductive health.

[19]  Su Yeong Kim,et al.  Intergenerational Experiences of Discrimination in Chinese American Families: Influences of Socialization and Stress. , 2009, Journal of marriage and the family.

[20]  J. Jackson,et al.  The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean Black youth. , 2008, Developmental psychology.

[21]  Sandra L. Barnes,et al.  Private Regard, Identity Protection and Perceived Racism among African American Males , 2008 .

[22]  K. Welch,et al.  Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling , 2007 .

[23]  Kelly D. Davis,et al.  Mothers' and fathers' racial socialization in African American families: implications for youth. , 2006, Child development.

[24]  Pamela P. Martin,et al.  Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents , 2006 .

[25]  F. Gibbons,et al.  Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: a panel study. , 2004, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[26]  Marc A Zimmerman,et al.  Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. , 2003, Journal of health and social behavior.

[27]  J. N. Shelton,et al.  The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[28]  G. Elder,et al.  The life course as developmental theory. , 1998, Child development.

[29]  Tabbye M. Chavous,et al.  Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity , 1998, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[30]  David R. Williams,et al.  Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health , 1997, Journal of health psychology.

[31]  L. Radloff.  The CES-D Scale , 1977 .

[32]  Eleanor K. Seaton,et al.  The Intersection of Race and Gender Among Black American Adolescents. , 2019, Child development.

[33]  R. Sellers,et al.  The lagged effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptomology and interactions with racial identity. , 2015, Journal of counseling psychology.

[34]  Christopher P. Salas-Wright,et al.  Everyday discrimination and mood and substance use disorders: a latent profile analysis with African Americans and Caribbean Blacks. , 2015, Addictive behaviors.

[35]  April Harris-Britt,et al.  Depression in Inner City African American Youth: A Phenomenological Study , 2013 .

[36]  Robert Crosnoe,et al.  The Emergence and Development of Life Course Theory , 2003 .