Memory for pictures and sounds: independence of auditory and visual codes.

Three experiments examined the mnemonic independence of auditory and visual nonverbal stimuli in free recall. Stimulus lists consisted of (1) pictures, (2) the corresponding environmental sounds, or (3) picture-sound pairs. In Experiment 1, free recall was tested under three learning conditions: standard intentional, intentional with a rehearsal-inhibiting distracter task, or incidental with the distracter task. In all three groups, recall was best for the picture-sound items. In addition, recall for the picture-sound stimuli appeared to be additive relative to pictures or sounds alone when the distracter task was used. Experiment 2 included two additional groups: In one, two copies of the same picture were shown simultaneously; in the other, two different pictures of the same concept were shown. There was no difference in recall among any of the picture groups; in contrast, recall in the picture-sound condition was greater than recall in either single-modality condition. However, doubling the exposure time in a third experiment resulted in additively higher recall for repeated pictures with different exemplars than ones with identical exemplars. The results are discussed in terms of dual coding theory and alternative conceptions of the memory trace.

[1]  R. Frick,et al.  Using both an auditory and a visual short-term store to increase digit span , 1984, Memory & cognition.

[2]  A. Paivio.  Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach , 1986 .

[3]  S. Madigan,et al.  Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall , 1969 .

[4]  F. J. Vesta,et al.  The relation of field dependence to signal detection while imaging , 1982, Perception & psychophysics.

[5]  S. Glucksberg.  Commentary: The functional equivalence of common and multiple codes , 1984 .

[6]  Kevin M. McConkey,et al.  Cognition in individual and social contexts , 1989 .

[7]  John R. Anderson.  Arguments concerning representations for mental imagery. , 1978 .

[8]  B. Fischhoff,et al.  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory , 1980 .

[9]  W. Kintsch,et al.  Memory and cognition , 1977 .

[10]  J. G. Snodgrass,et al.  Concepts and Their Surface Representations , 1984 .

[11]  A. Paivio,et al.  Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? , 1973 .

[12]  D. L. Hintzman,et al.  Spacing, mirror-image repetition, and memory for pictures , 1977 .

[13]  J. K. Eddy,et al.  Representation of images in sentence verification , 1985 .

[14]  Wallace E. Lambert,et al.  Bilingual dual-coding theory and semantic repetition effects on recall. , 1988 .

[15]  Auditory and visual imagery in free recall. , 1984, The Journal of psychology.

[16]  I. Begg,et al.  Repetition and trace interaction: Superadditivity , 1988, Memory & cognition.

[17]  J. G. Snodgrass,et al.  A standardized set of 260 pictures: norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. , 1980, Journal of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory.

[18]  S. J. Segal,et al.  Influence of imaged pictures and sounds on detection of visual and auditory signals. , 1970, Journal of experimental psychology.

[19]  John Brown,et al.  Recall and Recognition , 1976 .

[20]  John R. Anderson.  The Architecture of Cognition , 1983 .

[21]  Allan Paivio,et al.  Imagery in recall and recognition. , 1976 .

[22]  Mark A. McDaniel,et al.  Memory for odors and odor names : Modalities of elaboration and imagery , 1990 .

[23]  D. Kieras.  Beyond pictures and words: Alternative information-processing models for imagery effect in verbal memory , 1978 .

[24]  A. Paivio.  Imagery and verbal processes , 1972 .

[25]  A. Paivio.  Coding Distinctions and Repetition Effects in Memory1 , 1975 .