A predictive model of perceived stress during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in university students Ecuadorians

Background and objectives The situation caused by the confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the mobility restriction implemented by governments worldwide had a significant impact on people’s routines. Stressors are known to increase emotional imbalance, uncertainty, and frustration in the general population. This study explores the factors that predispose to the risk of perceived stress from COVID-19 and determines the underlying mediating mechanisms in the Ecuadorian population. Method The cross-sectional study an incidental non-probabilistic sample of n = 977 participating student volunteers from the four regions of the Republic of Ecuador (68.6% women and 31.4% men). Data on emotional regulation (ERQ), perceived stress (PSS), active procrastination (APS), diagnosis and symptoms related to COVID-19, social isolation, coexistence, and a sociodemographic questionnaire (biological sex, marital status, and age) were recruited. Statistical analysis was based on a structural equation model. Results The risk of suffering perceived stress in the COVID-19 pandemic was higher for single women who have lived longer in social isolation, have lived with more people, have poor emotional regulation and high rates of procrastination. This structural model is similar in all Ecuadorian regions χ2 = 21.54 (p = 0.760), RMSEA = 0.001 (95%CI, 0.00–0.02), CFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.999; SRMR = 0.020. Discussion Although our findings are consistent and revealing for the scientific community, the lack of discrimination of the data due to strict isolation measures, taken at different periods by the Ecuadorian government against positive cases of COVID-19, is discussed. The research was applied to the university population, it would be representative to extend the study to schools and colleges. Conclusion We consider this work as a starting point for the creation of preventive models against perceived stress in the university environment in the event of health emergencies.

[1]  S. Carletto,et al.  The emotional side of post-traumatic stress reaction during COVID-19 pandemic: an Italian survey , 2022, BMC Public Health.

[2]  P. Hidalgo-Andrade,et al.  Procrastination during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review , 2022, Behavioral sciences.

[3]  A. Fagerstrøm,et al.  Academic Procrastination and Online Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic , 2022, Procedia Computer Science.

[4]  J. Díaz-Sánchez,et al.  Measuring Overcrowding in Households with Children: Official vs. Actual Thresholds in the Ecuadorian Case , 2022, Child Indicators Research.

[5]  Dayi Zhang,et al.  Sheet, Surveillance, Strategy, Salvage and Shield in global biodefense system to protect the public health and tackle the incoming pandemics , 2022, Science of The Total Environment.

[6]  J. Gross,et al.  Emotion regulation during the COVID-19 pandemic: risk and resilience factors for parental burnout (IIPB) , 2021, Cognition & emotion.

[7]  M. Schippers,et al.  Depression and Anxiety in Times of COVID-19: How Coping Strategies and Loneliness Relate to Mental Health Outcomes and Academic Performance , 2021, Frontiers in Psychology.

[8]  Reed J. D. Sorensen,et al.  Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic , 2021, The Lancet.

[9]  Israel Villarrasa-Sapiña,et al.  Estudio descriptivo sobre las diferencias de género en el estrés académico derivado del contexto COVID-19 en población universitaria española (Descriptive study on gender differences in academic stress derived from the COVID-19 context in a Spanish unive , 2021, Retos.

[10]  J. de la Fuente.  A Path Analysis Model of Protection and Risk Factors for University Academic Stress: Analysis and Psychoeducational Implications for the COVID-19 Emergency , 2021, Frontiers in Psychology.

[11]  J. Ranieri,et al.  Buffering effect of e-learning on Generation Z undergraduate students: A crosssectional study during the second COVID-19 lockdown in Italy , 2021 .

[12]  A. Martelli,et al.  Mediator Effect of Affinity for E-Learning on Mental Health: Buffering Strategy for the Resilience of University Students , 2021, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[13]  K. Vasquez,et al.  COVID-19 outbreaks at shelters for women who are victims of gender-based violence from Ecuador , 2021, International Journal of Infectious Diseases.

[14]  R. Vallerand,et al.  The role of passion for studies on academic procrastination and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic , 2021, Social psychology of education : an international journal.

[15]  A. Agudelo-Suárez,et al.  Perceived Stress in Dentists and Dental Students of Latin America and the Caribbean during the Mandatory Social Isolation Measures for the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study , 2021, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[16]  Ning Song,et al.  Genomic Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 From Mainland China With Newly Obtained Genomes From Henan Province , 2021, Frontiers in Microbiology.

[17]  V. Ardeleanu,et al.  Psychopathology in Patients Diagnosed with Sars Cov 2: a Brief Report , 2021 .

[18]  Erika Osorio-Valencia,et al.  Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, and Perceived Stress in Postpartum Mexican Women during the COVID-19 Lockdown , 2021, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[19]  J. Alava,et al.  A critical narrative of Ecuador’s preparedness and response to the COVID-19 pandemic , 2021, Public Health in Practice.

[20]  E. Luis,et al.  Different Responses to Stress, Health Practices, and Self-Care during COVID-19 Lockdown: A Stratified Analysis , 2021, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[21]  Azita Fathnezhad-kazemi,et al.  Association between perceived stress, fear and anxiety of COVID 19 with self-care in pregnant women: a cross-sectional study , 2021, Psychology, health & medicine.

[22]  G. Bonanno,et al.  Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Healthcare Workers During the COVID-19 Outbreak and Relationships With Expressive Flexibility and Context Sensitivity , 2021, Frontiers in Psychology.

[23]  Luca Belli,et al.  Data protection and social emergency in Latin America: COVID-19, a stress test for democracy, innovation, and regulation , 2021 .

[24]  N. Poole.  The Biopsychosocial Model of Health and Disease: New Philosophical and Scientific Developments By Derek Bolton and Grant Gillett Palgrave Pivot. 2019. £20 (hb). 164 pp. ISBN 9783030118983 , 2021, The British Journal of Psychiatry.

[25]  M. Shevlin,et al.  Adjustment disorder, traumatic stress, depression and anxiety in Poland during an early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic , 2021, European journal of psychotraumatology.

[26]  A. Lawal,et al.  Differential effect of gender, marital status, religion, ethnicity, education and employment status on mental health during COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria , 2020, Psychology, health & medicine.

[27]  G. Vaiva,et al.  Is COVID-19 Associated With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder? , 2020, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[28]  A. Rodríguez-Hidalgo,et al.  Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression , 2020, Frontiers in Psychology.

[29]  I. Romash.  The nature of the manifestation of procrastination, level of anxiety and depression in medical students in a period of altered psycho-emotional state during forced social distancing because of pandemic COVID-19 and its impact on academic performance , 2020, Mental Health: Global Challenges Journal.

[30]  A. Campo‐Arias,et al.  Pandemic-Related Perceived Stress Scale of COVID-19: An exploration of online psychometric performance☆ , 2020, Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English ed.).

[31]  Fan Li,et al.  Epidemiological and Genomic Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in 10 Patients From a Mid-Sized City Outside of Hubei, China in the Early Phase of the COVID-19 Outbreak , 2020, Frontiers in Public Health.

[32]  A. Masuyama,et al.  The effect of ego-resiliency and COVID-19-related stress on mental health among the Japanese population , 2020, Personality and Individual Differences.

[33]  V. Ardino,et al.  Stressors, coping and symptoms of adjustment disorder in the course of the COVID-19 pandemic – study protocol of the European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ESTSS) pan-European study , 2020, European journal of psychotraumatology.

[34]  N. Extremera.  Coping with the stress caused by the COVID-19 pandemic: future research agenda based on emotional intelligence ((Afrontando el estrés causado por la pandemia COVID-19: futura agenda de investigación desde la inteligencia emocional)) , 2020, International Journal of Social Psychology.

[35]  C. Robazza,et al.  The effects of COVID-19 pandemic on perceived stress and psychobiosocial states in Italian athletes , 2020, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.

[36]  D. Alateeq,et al.  Perceived stress among students in virtual classrooms during the COVID-19 outbreak in KSA , 2020, Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences.

[37]  J. R. Balmori de la Miyar,et al.  COVID-19 blues: Lockdowns and mental health-related google searches in Latin America , 2020, Social Science & Medicine.

[38]  A. Campo-Arias,et al.  Escala de estrés percibido relacionado con la pandemia de COVID-19: una exploración del desempeño psicométrico en línea , 2020, Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría.

[39]  M. Potenza,et al.  Panic and generalized anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic among Bangladeshi people: An online pilot survey early in the outbreak , 2020, Journal of Affective Disorders.

[40]  A. Terrinoni,et al.  The COVID-19 pandemic , 2020, Critical reviews in clinical laboratory sciences.

[41]  M. Pastore,et al.  Parents' Stress and Children's Psychological Problems in Families Facing the COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy , 2020, Frontiers in Psychology.

[42]  N. Muñoz.  COVID-19 in Latin America: a first glance to the mortality , 2020, Colombia Médica.

[43]  J. Posner,et al.  Family Environment, Neurodevelopmental Risk, and the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Initiative: Looking Back and Moving Forward , 2020, Frontiers in Psychiatry.

[44]  J. Biegel,et al.  Comprehensive Genome Analysis of 6,000 USA SARS-CoV-2 Isolates Reveals Haplotype Signatures and Localized Transmission Patterns by State and by Country , 2020, Frontiers in Microbiology.

[45]  Min Cheol Chang,et al.  Usefulness of an Online Preliminary Questionnaire under the COVID-19 Pandemic , 2020, Journal of Medical Systems.

[46]  Chandragouda R. Patil,et al.  Role of oxidative stress in depression. , 2020, Drug discovery today.

[47]  Selçuk Özdin,et al.  Levels and predictors of anxiety, depression and health anxiety during COVID-19 pandemic in Turkish society: The importance of gender , 2020, The International journal of social psychiatry.

[48]  S. Restubog,et al.  Taking control amidst the chaos: Emotion regulation during the COVID-19 pandemic☆ , 2020, Journal of Vocational Behavior.

[49]  D. Acosta,et al.  The impact of COVID-19 on mental health in the Hispanic Caribbean region , 2020, International Psychogeriatrics.

[50]  D. McKenzie,et al.  Remote-learning, time-use, and mental health of Ecuadorian high-school students during the COVID-19 quarantine , 2020, World Development.

[51]  B. Pfefferbaum,et al.  Mental Health and the Covid-19 Pandemic. , 2020, The New England journal of medicine.

[52]  Kang Sim,et al.  Narrative synthesis of psychological and coping responses towards emerging infectious disease outbreaks in the general population: practical considerations for the COVID-19 pandemic. , 2020, Singapore medical journal.

[53]  R. Ho,et al.  Immediate Psychological Responses and Associated Factors during the Initial Stage of the 2019 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Epidemic among the General Population in China , 2020, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[54]  Min Zhao,et al.  A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: implications and policy recommendations , 2020, General Psychiatry.

[55]  G. Ippolito,et al.  Is Africa prepared for tackling the COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) epidemic. Lessons from past outbreaks, ongoing pan-African public health efforts, and implications for the future , 2020, International Journal of Infectious Diseases.

[56]  M. E. El Zowalaty,et al.  From SARS to COVID-19: A previously unknown SARS- related coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) of pandemic potential infecting humans – Call for a One Health approach , 2020, One Health.

[57]  E. Dong,et al.  An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time , 2020, The Lancet Infectious Diseases.

[58]  Steven Taylor,et al.  Coronaphobia: Fear and the 2019-nCoV outbreak , 2020, Journal of Anxiety Disorders.

[59]  K. Bernecker,et al.  Too exhausted to go to bed: Implicit theories about willpower and stress predict bedtime procrastination. , 2020, British journal of psychology.

[60]  Lupe García Ampudia,et al.  Procrastinación: Revisión Teórica , 2020, Revista de Investigación en Psicología.

[61]  W. van Eerde,et al.  Development and validation of the General Procrastination Scale (GPS-9): A short and reliable measure of trait procrastination , 2019, Personality and Individual Differences.

[62]  F. Pan,et al.  The relationship between procrastination, perceived stress, saliva alpha-amylase level and parenting styles in Chinese first year medical students , 2019, Psychology research and behavior management.

[63]  P. Cummings.  Stratified Analysis , 2019, Analysis of Incidence Rates.

[64]  Sadia Musharraf,et al.  Academic Stress Predicted by Academic Procrastination among Young Adults: Moderating Role of Peer Influence Resistance , 2019, JLUMHS.

[65]  D. Bolton,et al.  The Biopsychosocial Model of Health and Disease , 2019 .

[66]  Pedro J. Amor,et al.  Profiles of Cognitive Emotion Regulation and their Association with Emotional Traits , 2019, Clínica y Salud.

[67]  A. D. De Livera,et al.  Longitudinal Associations of Modifiable Lifestyle Factors With Positive Depression-Screen Over 2.5-Years in an International Cohort of People Living With Multiple Sclerosis , 2018, Front. Psychiatry.

[68]  Chelsea C. Hays,et al.  The potential of calibrated fMRI in the understanding of stress in eating disorders , 2018, Neurobiology of Stress.

[69]  N. Garcia-Cairasco,et al.  A Comprehensive Overview on Stress Neurobiology: Basic Concepts and Clinical Implications , 2018, Front. Behav. Neurosci..

[70]  Stephen H. Bell,et al.  A ?scoping review. , 2018, Sexual health.

[71]  S. Hoffman,et al.  Delays in Global Disease Outbreak Responses: Lessons from H1N1, Ebola, and Zika , 2018, American journal of public health.

[72]  K. Brownley,et al.  Stress-induced eating in women with binge-eating disorder and obesity , 2018, Biological Psychology.

[73]  D. D. de Ridder,et al.  Bedtime procrastination: introducing a new area of procrastination , 2014, Front. Psychol..

[74]  Kathy Lawrence,et al.  Looking back and moving forward. , 2014, Canadian family physician Medecin de famille canadien.

[75]  Sheldon Cohen,et al.  PERCEIVED STRESS SCALE , 2014 .

[76]  R. Hen,et al.  Neurogenesis and generalization: a new approach to stratify and treat anxiety disorders , 2012, Nature Neuroscience.

[77]  Pedagógia,et al.  Cross Sectional Study , 2019 .

[78]  S. Hofmann,et al.  Posttraumatic stress and social anxiety: the interaction of traumatic events and interpersonal fears , 2010, Depression and anxiety.

[79]  L. Briand,et al.  Molecular and genetic substrates linking stress and addiction , 2010, Brain Research.

[80]  Jin Nam Choi,et al.  Why Not Procrastinate? Development and Validation of a New Active Procrastination Scale , 2009, The Journal of social psychology.

[81]  U. Ebner-Priemer,et al.  Dissociative symptoms are positively related to stress in borderline personality disorder , 2007, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[82]  Rajita Sinha,et al.  The role of stress in addiction relapse , 2007, Current psychiatry reports.

[83]  P. Barrett.  Structural equation modelling : Adjudging model fit , 2007 .

[84]  D. Buss,et al.  Mate preferences of married persons in the newlywed year and three years later , 2005 .

[85]  J. Davidson.  Use of benzodiazepines in social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. , 2004, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[86]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  The Art of Living by Dispositionally Happy People , 2003 .

[87]  N. Goeders,et al.  The impact of stress on addiction , 2003, European Neuropsychopharmacology.

[88]  O. John,et al.  Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[89]  H. Finner,et al.  On the False Discovery Rate and Expected Type I Errors , 2001 .

[90]  J. Gorman,et al.  The noradrenergic system in pathological anxiety: a focus on panic with relevance to generalized anxiety and phobias , 1999, Biological Psychiatry.

[91]  Rex B. Kline,et al.  Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling , 1998 .

[92]  P. Mcnamara.  A Theoretical Review , 1974 .

[93]  J. Ranieri,et al.  Predictive risk factors for post-traumatic stress symptoms among nurses during the Italian acute COVID-19 outbreak , 2021, Health Psychology Report.

[94]  S. Riedel-Heller,et al.  COVID-19-Pandemie: Belastungen des medizinischen Personals./ [COVID-19 Pandemic: Stress Experience of Healthcare Workers - A Short Current Review]. , 2020 .

[95]  Atanas Rusev,et al.  Implications and policy recommendations , 2016 .

[96]  Tapabrata Maiti,et al.  Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd ed.) , 2006 .

[97]  C. Hammen.  Stress and depression. , 2005, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[98]  Matteo Bartolomeo,et al.  The Italian survey , 2003 .

[99]  R. MacCallum,et al.  Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. , 2000, Annual review of psychology.

[100]  R. Kessler,et al.  Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. , 1995 .