Sprouting, regeneration and circuit formation in the injured spinal cord: factors and activity

Central nervous system (CNS) injuries are particularly traumatic, owing to the limited capabilities of the mammalian CNS for repair. Nevertheless, functional recovery is observed in patients and experimental animals, but the degree of recovery is variable. We review the crucial characteristics of mammalian spinal cord function, tract development, injury and the current experimental therapeutic approaches for repair. Regenerative or compensatory growth of neurites and the formation of new, functional circuits require spontaneous and experimental reactivation of developmental mechanisms, suppression of the growth-inhibitory properties of the adult CNS tissue and specific targeted activation of new connections by rehabilitative training.

[1]  François Guillemot,et al.  Proneural genes and the specification of neural cell types , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[2]  M. Schwab,et al.  Functional Recovery and Enhanced Corticofugal Plasticity after Unilateral Pyramidal Tract Lesion and Blockade of Myelin-Associated Neurite Growth Inhibitors in Adult Rats , 1998, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[3]  P. Bovolenta,et al.  Guidance of commissural growth cones at the floor plate in embryonic rat spinal cord. , 1990, Development.

[4]  E. Frank,et al.  Development and specification of muscle sensory neurons , 1999, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[5]  M. Murray,et al.  Transplants of Fibroblasts Genetically Modified to Express BDNF Promote Regeneration of Adult Rat Rubrospinal Axons and Recovery of Forelimb Function , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[6]  C. Gilbert,et al.  Long-range horizontal connections and their role in cortical reorganization revealed by optical recording of cat primary visual cortex , 1995, Nature.

[7]  H. Cline,et al.  Promotion of dendritic growth by CPG15, an activity-induced signaling molecule. , 1998, Science.

[8]  E. Eidelberg,et al.  Locomotor control in macaque monkeys. , 1981, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[9]  J. Nicholls,et al.  Strategies for identifying genes that play a role in spinal cord regeneration , 2004, Journal of anatomy.

[10]  T. Jones.  Multiple synapse formation in the motor cortex opposite unilateral sensorimotor cortex lesions in adult rats , 1999, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[11]  C. Bandtlow,et al.  Nogo-A and Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Mediate Neurite Growth Inhibition by Antagonistic Regulation of RhoA and Rac1 , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[12]  J P Malin,et al.  Cortical reorganization in patients with facial palsy , 1997, Annals of neurology.

[13]  L. Mckerracher,et al.  Identification of myelin-associated glycoprotein as a major myelin-derived inhibitor of neurite growth , 1994, Neuron.

[14]  L. Luo,et al.  Axon retraction and degeneration in development and disease. , 2005, Annual review of neuroscience.

[15]  M. Schwab,et al.  Anti—Nogo-A Antibody Infusion 24 Hours after Experimental Stroke Improved Behavioral Outcome and Corticospinal Plasticity in Normotensive and Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats , 2003, Journal of cerebral blood flow and metabolism : official journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism.

[16]  M. Schwab,et al.  Axonal regeneration in the rat spinal cord produced by an antibody against myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitors , 1990, Nature.

[17]  Anirvan Ghosh,et al.  Nuclear Notch1 signaling and the regulation of dendritic development , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[18]  F. Rathjen,et al.  Molecular analysis of axonal target specificity and synapse formation , 2005, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences CMLS.

[19]  D. Hubel,et al.  EFFECTS OF VISUAL DEPRIVATION ON MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF CELLS IN THE CATS LATERAL GENICULATE BODY. , 1963, Journal of neurophysiology.

[20]  N. Yamamoto,et al.  Wiring of the brain by a range of guidance cues , 2002, Progress in Neurobiology.

[21]  RP Dum,et al.  The origin of corticospinal projections from the premotor areas in the frontal lobe , 1991, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[22]  A. Aguayo,et al.  Regeneration of long spinal axons in the rat , 1984, Journal of neurocytology.

[23]  Anirvan Ghosh,et al.  Regulation of dendritic growth by calcium and neurotrophin signaling. , 2005, Progress in brain research.

[24]  S. Wiegand,et al.  BDNF and NT-4/5 Prevent Atrophy of Rat Rubrospinal Neurons after Cervical Axotomy, Stimulate GAP-43 and Tα1-Tubulin mRNA Expression, and Promote Axonal Regeneration , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[25]  R. R. Capranica,et al.  Axonal guidance of developing optic nerves in the frog. II. Electrophysiological studies of the projection from transplanted eye primordia , 1976, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[26]  G. Kartje,et al.  Behavioral recovery and anatomical plasticity in adult rats after cortical lesion and treatment with monoclonal antibody IN-1 , 2004, Behavioural Brain Research.

[27]  A. Aguayo,et al.  Axonal elongation into peripheral nervous system "bridges" after central nervous system injury in adult rats. , 1981, Science.

[28]  M. Wiesendanger,et al.  Trajectory of redirected corticospinal axons after unilateral lesion of the sensorimotor cortex in neonatal rat; A phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin (PHA-L) tracing study , 1991, Experimental Neurology.

[29]  W. Tetzlaff,et al.  Response of rubrospinal and corticospinal neurons to injury and neurotrophins. , 1994, Progress in brain research.

[30]  J. Bolz,et al.  Semaphorins act as attractive and repulsive guidance signals during the development of cortical projections. , 1998, Development.

[31]  L. C. Katz,et al.  BDNF release from single cells elicits local dendritic growth in nearby neurons , 2002, Nature Neuroscience.

[32]  T. Schallert,et al.  Use-dependent structural events in recovery of function. , 1997, Advances in neurology.

[33]  E. Welker,et al.  Plasticity in the barrel cortex of the adult mouse: Effects of peripheral deprivation on GAD-immunoreactivity , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[34]  J. Juraska.  The development of pyramidal neurons after eye opening in the visual cortex of hooded rats: A quantitative study , 1982, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[35]  T. Edlund,et al.  Neural induction: toward a unifying mechanism , 2001, Nature Neuroscience.

[36]  A. McAllister,et al.  Cellular and molecular mechanisms of dendrite growth. , 2000, Cerebral cortex.

[37]  Douglas K. Anderson,et al.  Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan Immunoreactivity Increases Following Spinal Cord Injury and Transplantation , 1999, Experimental Neurology.

[38]  Larry F. Lacey,et al.  Long-term effects of on , 1987 .

[39]  L. G. Cohen,et al.  Nervous system reorganization following injury , 2002, Neuroscience.

[40]  A. Riesen,et al.  Effects of early environments on monkey cortex neuroanatomical changes following somatomotor experience: effects on layer III pyramidal cells in monkey cortex. , 1987, Behavioral Neuroscience.

[41]  Stephen P. Hunt,et al.  The molecular dynamics of pain control , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[42]  Mark Hallett,et al.  Constraint-Induced Therapy in Stroke: Magnetic-Stimulation Motor Maps and Cerebral Activation , 2003, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[43]  M. Tuszynski,et al.  Spontaneous and neurotrophin-induced axonal plasticity after spinal cord injury. , 2002, Progress in brain research.

[44]  D. Riddle,et al.  Insulin-Like Growth Factor I Stimulates Dendritic Growth in Primary Somatosensory Cortex , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[45]  V. Dietz,et al.  Providing the clinical basis for new interventional therapies: refined diagnosis and assessment of recovery after spinal cord injury , 2004, Spinal Cord.

[46]  A. West,et al.  Cellular and molecular biology of ensheathing cells , 2002, Microscopy research and technique.

[47]  M. Tuszynski,et al.  Robust Growth of Chronically Injured Spinal Cord Axons Induced by Grafts of Genetically Modified NGF-Secreting Cells , 1997, Experimental Neurology.

[48]  G Colombo,et al.  Locomotor pattern in paraplegic patients: training effects and recovery of spinal cord function , 1998, Spinal Cord.

[49]  M. Schwab,et al.  Inflammation, degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord: insights from DNA microarrays , 2003, Trends in Neurosciences.

[50]  John H. Martin.  The Corticospinal System: From Development to Motor Control , 2005, The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

[51]  Ron D. Frostig,et al.  Rapid and opposite effects of BDNF and NGF on the functional organization of the adult cortex in vivo , 1996, Nature.

[52]  V. Edgerton,et al.  Differential regulation by exercise of BDNF and NT‐3 in rat spinal cord and skeletal muscle , 2001, The European journal of neuroscience.

[53]  E. G. Jones,et al.  Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex. , 2000, Annual review of neuroscience.

[54]  A. Fournier,et al.  Structure and axon outgrowth inhibitor binding of the Nogo‐66 receptor and related proteins , 2003, The EMBO journal.

[55]  David J. Reinkensmeyer,et al.  Chapter 11 Use of robotics in assessing the adaptive capacity of the rat lumbar spinal cord , 2002 .

[56]  Yves-Alain Barde,et al.  Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion , 1994, Nature.

[57]  J. Fawcett,et al.  The glial scar and central nervous system repair , 1999, Brain Research Bulletin.

[58]  Fisher Cm,et al.  Concerning the Mechanism of Recovery in Stroke Hemiphegia , 1992 .

[59]  S. McMahon,et al.  Neurotrophin-3-Mediated Regeneration and Recovery of Proprioception Following Dorsal Rhizotomy , 2002, Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience.

[60]  V. Edgerton,et al.  Exercise restores levels of neurotrophins and synaptic plasticity following spinal cord injury , 2005, Experimental Neurology.

[61]  O. Kiehn,et al.  Functional Identification of Interneurons Responsible for Left-Right Coordination of Hindlimbs in Mammals , 2003, Neuron.

[62]  Martin E. Schwab,et al.  Plasticity of motor systems after incomplete spinal cord injury , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[63]  M. Schwab,et al.  Neurite growth inhibitors restrict plasticity and functional recovery following corticospinal tract lesions , 1998, Nature Neuroscience.

[64]  Stephen G. Lomber,et al.  Reconstructing functional systems after lesions of cerebral cortex , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[65]  M. Schwab,et al.  Functional recovery and neuroanatomical plasticity following middle cerebral artery occlusion and IN‐1 antibody treatment in the adult rat , 2002, Annals of neurology.

[66]  R. Segal,et al.  p75 interacts with the Nogo receptor as a co-receptor for Nogo, MAG and OMgp , 2002, Nature.

[67]  M. Schwab,et al.  Nogo and its paRTNers. , 2003, Trends in cell biology.

[68]  H. Winn,et al.  Methylprednisolone or tirilazad mesylate administration after acute spinal cord injury: 1-year follow up: Results of the third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial , 1998 .

[69]  C. Hovens,et al.  Ryk-deficient mice exhibit craniofacial defects associated with perturbed Eph receptor crosstalk , 2000, Nature Genetics.

[70]  C. Cotman,et al.  Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity , 2002, Trends in Neurosciences.

[71]  M. Oudega,et al.  Neurotrophins promote regeneration of sensory axons in the adult rat spinal cord , 1999, Brain Research.

[72]  N. Hogan,et al.  Effects of robotic therapy on motor impairment and recovery in chronic stroke. , 2003, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[73]  T. Schallert,et al.  Use-Dependent Exaggeration of Brain Injury: Is Glutamate Involved? , 1999, Experimental Neurology.

[74]  S. Strittmatter,et al.  Delayed Systemic Nogo-66 Receptor Antagonist Promotes Recovery from Spinal Cord Injury , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[75]  B. Kolb.  Overview of cortical plasticity and recovery from brain injury. , 2003, Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America.

[76]  Robert Riener,et al.  Robot-aided neurorehabilitation of the upper extremities , 2005, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing.

[77]  P. Strata,et al.  Application of Neutralizing Antibodies against NI-35/250 Myelin-Associated Neurite Growth Inhibitory Proteins to the Adult Rat Cerebellum Induces Sprouting of Uninjured Purkinje Cell Axons , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[78]  S. Harkema,et al.  Retraining the injured spinal cord , 2001, The Journal of physiology.

[79]  M Mishkin,et al.  Effects of selective neonatal temporal lobe lesions on visual recognition memory in rhesus monkeys , 1994, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[80]  S. Zeiler,et al.  Development/Plasticity/Repair Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Is Required for the Maintenance of Cortical Dendrites , 2022 .

[81]  J. Metzler,et al.  Functional changes in cat somatic sensory-motor cortex during short-term reversible epidural blocks , 1979, Brain Research.

[82]  Michael Klinger,et al.  A reticular rhapsody: phylogenic evolution and nomenclature of the RTN/Nogo gene family 1 , 2003, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[83]  N. Perrone-Bizzozero,et al.  The expression of GAP-43 in relation to neuronal growth and plasticity: when, where, how, and why? , 1991, Progress in brain research.

[84]  M. Schwab,et al.  Myelin‐Associated Inhibitors of Neurite Outgrowth and Their Role in CNS Regeneration , 1991, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[85]  M. Mishkin,et al.  Massive cortical reorganization after sensory deafferentation in adult macaques. , 1991, Science.

[86]  Brown Mc,et al.  Macrophage responses to central and peripheral nerve injury. , 1993 .

[87]  J. Kaas,et al.  Large-scale sprouting of cortical connections after peripheral injury in adult macaque monkeys. , 1998, Science.

[88]  B. Stokes,et al.  Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Stimulates Hindlimb Stepping and Sprouting of Cholinergic Fibers after Spinal Cord Injury , 1998, Experimental Neurology.

[89]  J. Zhang,et al.  Recent development in NMDA receptors. , 2000, Chinese medical journal.

[90]  K. Fouad,et al.  Nogo‐A antibody improves regeneration and locomotion of spinal cord–injured rats , 2005, Annals of neurology.

[91]  John H. Martin,et al.  Postnatal development of differential projections from the caudal and rostral motor cortex subregions , 2000, Experimental Brain Research.

[92]  J. Relton,et al.  LINGO-1 is a component of the Nogo-66 receptor/p75 signaling complex , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[93]  T. Hensch.  Critical period regulation. , 2004, Annual review of neuroscience.

[94]  Martin E. Schwab,et al.  Nogo-A is a myelin-associated neurite outgrowth inhibitor and an antigen for monoclonal antibody IN-1 , 2000, Nature.

[95]  A. Fournier,et al.  Nogo-A Interacts with the Nogo-66 Receptor through Multiple Sites to Create an Isoform-Selective Subnanomolar Agonist , 2005, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[96]  V. Dietz,et al.  Long term effects of locomotor training in spinal humans , 2001, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[97]  Y. Rao,et al.  Signalling mechanisms mediating neuronal responses to guidance cues , 2003, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[98]  W. Tetzlaff,et al.  BDNF and NT‐3, but not NGF, Prevent Axotomy‐induced Death of Rat Corticospinal Neurons In Vivo , 1996, The European journal of neuroscience.

[99]  M. Poo,et al.  A p75NTR and Nogo receptor complex mediates repulsive signaling by myelin-associated glycoprotein , 2002, Nature Neuroscience.

[100]  R. Nieuwenhuys,et al.  On the development of the pyramidal tract in the rat , 1985, Anatomy and Embryology.

[101]  A. Ghosh,et al.  Patterning of cortical efferent projections by semaphorin-neuropilin interactions. , 1998, Science.

[102]  R. Malinow,et al.  Maturation of a Central Glutamatergic Synapse , 1996, Science.

[103]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Long-term potentiation and long-term depression of horizontal connections in rat motor cortex. , 1996, Acta neurobiologiae experimentalis.

[104]  V. Edgerton,et al.  Afferent input modulates neurotrophins and synaptic plasticity in the spinal cord. , 2004, Journal of neurophysiology.

[105]  M. Schwab,et al.  Nogo-A, -B, and -C Are Found on the Cell Surface and Interact Together in Many Different Cell Types* , 2005, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[106]  Bryan Kolb,et al.  Plasticity in the neocortex: mechanisms underlying recovery from early brain damage , 1989, Progress in Neurobiology.

[107]  H. M. Geller,et al.  Astrocyte topography and tenascin cytotactin expression: correlation with the ability to support neuritic outgrowth. , 1990, Brain research. Developmental brain research.

[108]  E. Taub,et al.  Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy: a new family of techniques with broad application to physical rehabilitation--a clinical review. , 1999, Journal of rehabilitation research and development.

[109]  E. Jones,et al.  Growth and target finding by axons of the corticospinal tract in prenatal and postnatal rats , 1982, Neuroscience.

[110]  M. Beattie,et al.  Cell death and plasticity after experimental spinal cord injury. , 2000, Progress in brain research.

[111]  M. Schwab,et al.  Channeling of developing rat corticospinal tract axons by myelin- associated neurite growth inhibitors , 1991, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[112]  P. Caroni.  Intrinsic neuronal determinants that promotes axonal sprouting and elongation , 1997, BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology.

[113]  Anirvan Ghosh,et al.  Semaphorin 3A is a chemoattractant for cortical apical dendrites , 2000, Nature.

[114]  B. Kolb,et al.  Cerebral Cortex doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi132 Dendritic Plasticity in the Adult Rat Following Middle Cerebral Artery , 2005 .

[115]  Z. Kaprielian,et al.  Axon guidance at the midline of the developing CNS , 2000, The Anatomical record.

[116]  J. J. Curry,et al.  The early development of corticobulbar and corticospinal systems , 2004, Anatomy and Embryology.

[117]  M. Oudega,et al.  Transplantation of Schwann cells and olfactory ensheathing glia after spinal cord injury: does pretreatment with methylprednisolone and interleukin-10 enhance recovery? , 2004, Journal of neurotrauma.

[118]  P. Cheney,et al.  Plasticity in the distribution of the red nucleus output to forearm muscles after unilateral lesions of the pyramidal tract. , 2000, Journal of neurophysiology.

[119]  R. L. McBride,et al.  Retrograde transport of Fluoro-Gold in corticospinal and rubrospinal neurons 10 and 20 weeks after T-9 spinal cord transection , 1990, Experimental Neurology.

[120]  M. Merzenich,et al.  Reorganization of neocortical representations after brain injury: a neurophysiological model of the bases of recovery from stroke. , 1987, Progress in brain research.

[121]  W. Mandemakers,et al.  An Oligodendrocyte Lineage-Specific Semaphorin, Sema5A, Inhibits Axon Growth by Retinal Ganglion Cells , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[122]  H. Cline,et al.  Dendritic arbor development and synaptogenesis , 2001, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[123]  F. Murakami,et al.  Crossing the floor plate triggers sharp turning of commissural axons. , 2001, Developmental biology.

[124]  R. G. Lee,et al.  Mechanisms Underlying Functional Recovery Following Stroke , 1995, Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques.

[125]  T. Tsumoto,et al.  Activity-Dependent Transfer of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor to Postsynaptic Neurons , 2001, Science.

[126]  N Birbaumer,et al.  Extensive reorganization of the somatosensory cortex in adult humans after nervous system injury. , 1994, Neuroreport.

[127]  R. Bunge,et al.  Observations on the pathology of several types of human spinal cord injury, with emphasis on the astrocyte response to penetrating injuries. , 1997, Advances in neurology.

[128]  P. Aebischer,et al.  A Combination of BDNF and NT-3 Promotes Supraspinal Axonal Regeneration into Schwann Cell Grafts in Adult Rat Thoracic Spinal Cord , 1995, Experimental Neurology.

[129]  John H. Martin,et al.  Effect of forelimb use on postnatal development of the forelimb motor representation in primary motor cortex of the cat. , 2005, Journal of neurophysiology.

[130]  相坂 明.  Two modes of corticospinal reinnervation occur close to spinal targets following unilateral lesion of the motor cortex in neonatal hamsters , 1999 .

[131]  A. Blesch,et al.  Nerve growth factor–hypersecreting Schwann cell grafts augment and guide spinal cord axonal growth and remyelinate central nervous system axons in a phenotypically appropriate manner that correlates with expression of L1 , 1999, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[132]  J. Konorski,et al.  The effects of cerebellar lesions upon skilled movements and instrumental conditioned reflexes. , 1972, Acta neurobiologiae experimentalis.

[133]  E. Joosten,et al.  Postnatal development of the ipsilateral corticospinal component in rat spinal cord: A light and electron microscopic anterograde HRP study , 1992, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[134]  M. Schwab,et al.  Regeneration of Lesioned Corticospinal Tract Fibers in the Adult Rat Induced by a Recombinant, Humanized IN-1 Antibody Fragment , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[135]  Patrick W Stroman,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging of neuronal function in the spinal cord: spinal FMRI. , 2005, Clinical medicine & research.

[136]  K. Fouad,et al.  Functional switch between motor tracts in the presence of the mAb IN-1 in the adult rat , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[137]  Xiaoming Jin,et al.  Development/Plasticity/Repair Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Mediates Activity- Dependent Dendritic Growth in Nonpyramidal Neocortical Interneurons in Developing Organotypic Cultures , 2022 .

[138]  John M. McCoy,et al.  TAJ/TROY, an Orphan TNF Receptor Family Member, Binds Nogo-66 Receptor 1 and Regulates Axonal Regeneration , 2005, Neuron.

[139]  S. Rossignol,et al.  Recovery of locomotion after chronic spinalization in the adult cat , 1987, Brain Research.

[140]  L. Parada,et al.  Ephrin-B3 is a myelin-based inhibitor of neurite outgrowth. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[141]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Reorganization of human cortical motor output maps following traumatic forearm amputation , 1996, Neuroreport.

[142]  R. Waters,et al.  A View Of The Future Model Spinal Cord Injury System Through The Prism Of Past Achievements And Current Challenges , 2003, The journal of spinal cord medicine.

[143]  Zhigang He,et al.  Oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein is a Nogo receptor ligand that inhibits neurite outgrowth , 2002, Nature.

[144]  M. Schwartz.  Optic nerve crush: protection and regeneration , 2004, Brain Research Bulletin.

[145]  E. Taub,et al.  Movements in monkeys with deafferented forelimbs. , 1963, Experimental neurology.

[146]  Martin E Schwab,et al.  The injured spinal cord spontaneously forms a new intraspinal circuit in adult rats , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[147]  J. Kapfhammer,et al.  Increased lesion‐induced sprouting of corticospinal fibres in the myelin‐free rat spinal cord , 1998, The European journal of neuroscience.

[148]  J W Fawcett,et al.  Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans: preventing plasticity or protecting the CNS? , 2004, Journal of anatomy.

[149]  D. Basso,et al.  Descending systems contributing to locomotor recovery after mild or moderate spinal cord injury in rats: experimental evidence and a review of literature. , 2002, Restorative neurology and neuroscience.

[150]  D. Ginty,et al.  Functions and mechanisms of retrograde neurotrophin signalling , 2005, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[151]  V. Dietz,et al.  Differential effect of spinal cord injury and functional impairment on human brain activation. , 2002, Journal of neurotrauma.

[152]  T. Gorgels,et al.  Immunoelectron microscopic localization of cell adhesion molecule L1 in developing rat pyramidal tract , 1990, Neuroscience.

[153]  T. Schallert,et al.  Consequences of forced disuse of the impaired forelimb after unilateral cortical injury , 2004, Behavioural Brain Research.

[154]  M. Mason,et al.  Corticospinal neurons up‐regulate a range of growth‐associated genes following intracortical, but not spinal, axotomy , 2003, The European journal of neuroscience.

[155]  M. Tuszynski,et al.  Fibroblasts Genetically Modified to Produce Nerve Growth Factor Induce Robust Neuritic Ingrowth after Grafting to the Spinal Cord , 1994, Experimental Neurology.

[156]  R. Wong,et al.  Activity-dependent regulation of dendritic growth and patterning , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[157]  R. Nudo,et al.  Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys. , 1996, Journal of neurophysiology.

[158]  M. Schwab,et al.  An engineered IN-1 F(ab) fragment with improved affinity for the Nogo-A axonal growth inhibitor permits immunochemical detection and shows enhanced neutralizing activity. , 2002, Protein engineering.

[159]  B. Kakulas,et al.  A review of the neuropathology of human spinal cord injury with emphasis on special features. , 1999, The journal of spinal cord medicine.

[160]  J. Skene.  Axonal growth-associated proteins. , 1989, Annual review of neuroscience.

[161]  S. Harkema,et al.  Locomotor activity in spinal cord-injured persons. , 2004, Journal of applied physiology.

[162]  Maurizio Corbetta,et al.  Functional reorganization and stability of somatosensory-motor cortical topography in a tetraplegic subject with late recovery , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[163]  Richard P. Bunge,et al.  Expanding roles for the Schwann cell: ensheathment, myelination, trophism and regeneration , 1993, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[164]  J. Steeves,et al.  Setting the stage for functional repair of spinal cord injuries: a cast of thousands , 2005, Spinal Cord.

[165]  L. Bagley.  Imaging of spinal trauma. , 2006, Radiologic clinics of North America.

[166]  Rafael Yuste,et al.  Spine Motility Phenomenology, Mechanisms, and Function , 2002, Neuron.

[167]  M Hallett,et al.  Rapid reversible modulation of human motor outputs after transient deafferentation of the forearm , 1992, Neurology.

[168]  B. Kably,et al.  Activity-dependent development of cortical axon terminations in the spinal cord and brain stem , 1999, Experimental Brain Research.

[169]  A. Craig,et al.  Molecular heterogeneity of central synapses: afferent and target regulation , 2001, Nature Neuroscience.

[170]  E. G. Jones,et al.  Reduction in number of immunostained GABAergic neurones in deprived-eye dominance columns of monkey area 17 , 1986, Nature.

[171]  T. Jones,et al.  Motor Skills Training Enhances Lesion-Induced Structural Plasticity in the Motor Cortex of Adult Rats , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[172]  N. Miller,et al.  Technique to improve chronic motor deficit after stroke. , 1993, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[173]  M. Beattie,et al.  Cell death in models of spinal cord injury. , 2002, Progress in brain research.

[174]  M. Schwab,et al.  Identification and Characterization of a Bovine Neurite Growth Inhibitor (bNI-220)* , 1998, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[175]  M. Schwab,et al.  Functional Reorganization of the Motor Cortex in Adult Rats after Cortical Lesion and Treatment with Monoclonal Antibody IN-1 , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[176]  K. Kalil,et al.  Specificity of corticospinal axon arbors sprouting into denervated contralateral spinal cord , 1990, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[177]  C. Fisher,et al.  Concerning the Mechanism of Recovery in Stroke Hemiphegia , 1992, Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques.

[178]  Y. Rao,et al.  Slit proteins: molecular guidance cues for cells ranging from neurons to leukocytes. , 2002, Current opinion in genetics & development.

[179]  F. Bonhoeffer,et al.  Recognition of cell types by axonal growth cones in vitro , 1980, Nature.

[180]  Lawrence C. Katz,et al.  Neurotrophins regulate dendritic growth in developing visual cortex , 1995, Neuron.

[181]  R. J. Dumont,et al.  Acute Spinal Cord Injury, Part I: Pathophysiologic Mechanisms , 2001, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[182]  T. Elbert,et al.  Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation , 1995, Nature.

[183]  Serge Rossignol,et al.  Activation of Locomotion in Adult Chronic Spinal Rats Is Achieved by Transplantation of Embryonic Raphe Cells Reinnervating a Precise Lumbar Level , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[184]  Joshua Sanes,et al.  Close Homolog of L1 Modulates Area-Specific Neuronal Positioning and Dendrite Orientation in the Cerebral Cortex , 2004, Neuron.

[185]  A. Wernig,et al.  Laufband Therapy Based on‘Rules of Spinal Locomotion’is Effective in Spinal Cord Injured Persons , 1995, The European journal of neuroscience.

[186]  H. Shine,et al.  Neurotrophic factors expressed in both cortex and spinal cord induce axonal plasticity after spinal cord injury , 2003, Journal of neuroscience research.

[187]  J. Liepert,et al.  Motor cortex plasticity during constraint-induced movement therapy in stroke patients , 1998, Neuroscience Letters.

[188]  M. Schwab.  Repairing the Injured Spinal Cord , 2002, Science.

[189]  N. Kleitman,et al.  Axonal regeneration into Schwann cell‐seeded guidance channels grafted into transected adult rat spinal cord , 1995, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[190]  M. Schwab,et al.  Degeneration and regeneration of axons in the lesioned spinal cord. , 1996, Physiological reviews.

[191]  A. B. Huber,et al.  Nogo-A Inhibits Neurite Outgrowth and Cell Spreading with Three Discrete Regions , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[192]  A. Lieberman,et al.  Axonal regeneration from CNS neurons in the cerebellum and brainstem of adult rats: correlation with the patterns of expression and distribution of messenger RNAs for L1, CHL1, c-jun and growth-associated protein-43 , 2000, Neuroscience.

[193]  M. Filbin,et al.  A novel role for myelin-associated glycoprotein as an inhibitor of axonal regeneration , 1994, Neuron.

[194]  M. Schwab,et al.  Regeneration of lesioned rat optic nerve fibers is improved after neutralization of myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitors , 1994, Brain Research.

[195]  A. Fournier,et al.  Identification of a receptor mediating Nogo-66 inhibition of axonal regeneration , 2001, Nature.

[196]  M. Schwab,et al.  Bovine CNS Myelin Contains Neurite Growth-Inhibitory Activity Associated with Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycans , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[197]  T. Kennedy.  Cellular mechanisms of netrin function: long-range and short-range actions. , 2000, Biochemistry and cell biology = Biochimie et biologie cellulaire.

[198]  Fred H. Gage,et al.  Neurotrophin-3 and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Induce Oligodendrocyte Proliferation and Myelination of Regenerating Axons in the Contused Adult Rat Spinal Cord , 1998, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[199]  Jonathan A Raper,et al.  Semaphorins and their receptors in vertebrates and invertebrates , 2000, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[200]  S. Meiners,et al.  A distinct subset of tenascin/CS-6-PG-rich astrocytes restricts neuronal growth in vitro , 1995, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[201]  G. McDermott,et al.  Structure of the Nogo Receptor Ectodomain A Recognition Module Implicated in Myelin Inhibition , 2003, Neuron.

[202]  T. Elbert,et al.  New treatments in neurorehabiliation founded on basic research , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[203]  V R Edgerton,et al.  Hindlimb locomotor and postural training modulates glycinergic inhibition in the spinal cord of the adult spinal cat. , 1999, Journal of neurophysiology.

[204]  L. Mckerracher,et al.  Rho activation patterns after spinal cord injury and the role of activated Rho in apoptosis in the central nervous system , 2003, The Journal of cell biology.

[205]  M. Tuszynski,et al.  GDNF gene delivery to injured adult CNS motor neurons promotes axonal growth, expression of the trophic neuropeptide CGRP, and cellular protection , 2001, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[206]  D. Katz,et al.  Update of Neuropathology and Neurological Recovery After Traumatic Brain Injury , 2005, The Journal of head trauma rehabilitation.

[207]  M. E. Goldberger.  Locomotor recovery after unilateral hindlimb deafferentation in cats , 1977, Brain Research.

[208]  N. Miller,et al.  An operant approach to rehabilitation medicine: overcoming learned nonuse by shaping. , 1994, Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior.

[209]  M. Filbin,et al.  Myelin-associated inhibitors of axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian CNS , 2003, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[210]  Roger N Lemon,et al.  Stroke recovery , 1993, Current Biology.

[211]  O. Marín,et al.  Slit Proteins Prevent Midline Crossing and Determine the Dorsoventral Position of Major Axonal Pathways in the Mammalian Forebrain , 2002, Neuron.

[212]  B. Dobkin,et al.  Can the mammalian lumbar spinal cord learn a motor task? , 1994, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[213]  J. Kaas.  Plasticity of sensory and motor maps in adult mammals. , 1991, Annual review of neuroscience.

[214]  Christian Lohmann,et al.  Transmitter-evoked local calcium release stabilizes developing dendrites , 2002, Nature.

[215]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Long-term potentiation of horizontal connections provides a mechanism to reorganize cortical motor maps. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[216]  A. Wernig,et al.  Maintenance of locomotor abilities following Laufband (treadmill) therapy in para- and tetraplegic persons: follow-up studies , 1998, Spinal Cord.

[217]  J. Eckfeldt,et al.  Matrix effects on proficiency testing materials. Impact on accuracy of cholesterol measurement in laboratories in the nation's largest hospital system. , 1993, Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine.

[218]  John H. Martin,et al.  Rescuing Transient Corticospinal Terminations and Promoting Growth with Corticospinal Stimulation in Kittens , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[219]  C. Simonsen.  Reorganization of Movement Representations in Primary Motor Cortex Following Focal Ischemic Infarcts in Adult Squirrel Monkeys , 1998 .

[220]  S. Keirstead,et al.  Electrophysiologic responses in hamster superior colliculus evoked by regenerating retinal axons. , 1989, Science.

[221]  Anirvan Ghosh,et al.  Calcium Regulation of Dendritic Growth via CaM Kinase IV and CREB-Mediated Transcription , 2002, Neuron.

[222]  V. Dietz,et al.  Treadmill training of paraplegic patients using a robotic orthosis. , 2000, Journal of rehabilitation research and development.

[223]  M. Filbin,et al.  Prior Exposure to Neurotrophins Blocks Inhibition of Axonal Regeneration by MAG and Myelin via a cAMP-Dependent Mechanism , 1999, Neuron.

[224]  R. Nieuwenhuys,et al.  On the development of the pyramidal tract in the rat , 1985, Anatomy and Embryology.

[225]  J. Houlé,et al.  Nerve growth factor (NGF)-treated nitrocellulose enhances and directs the regeneration of adult rat dorsal root axons through intraspinal neural tissue transplants , 1989, Neuroscience Letters.

[226]  F. Gage,et al.  Regenerating the damaged central nervous system , 2000, Nature.

[227]  J. Bloch,et al.  Progressive plastic changes in the hand representation of the primary motor cortex parallel incomplete recovery from a unilateral section of the corticospinal tract at cervical level in monkeys , 2004, Brain Research.

[228]  A. Ramón-Cueto,et al.  Olfactory ensheathing glia transplantation: a therapy to promote repair in the mammalian central nervous system. , 2003, Anatomical record. Part B, New anatomist.

[229]  M. Schwab,et al.  Increased collateral sprouting of primary afferents in the myelin-free spinal cord , 1995, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[230]  D. G. Lawrence,et al.  The functional organization of the motor system in the monkey. II. The effects of lesions of the descending brain-stem pathways. , 1968, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[231]  M. Tuszynski,et al.  Delayed grafting of BDNF and NT-3 producing fibroblasts into the injured spinal cord stimulates sprouting, partially rescues axotomized red nucleus neurons from loss and atrophy, and provides limited regeneration , 2003, Experimental Neurology.

[232]  J. Relton,et al.  Blockade of Nogo-66, Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein, and Oligodendrocyte Myelin Glycoprotein by Soluble Nogo-66 Receptor Promotes Axonal Sprouting and Recovery after Spinal Injury , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[233]  M. Schwab,et al.  Neuronal plasticity and formation of new synaptic contacts follow pyramidal lesions and neutralization of Nogo‐A: A light and electron microscopic study in the pontine nuclei of adult rats , 2001, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[234]  R. Nudo,et al.  Neural Substrates for the Effects of Rehabilitative Training on Motor Recovery After Ischemic Infarct , 1996, Science.

[235]  L. Mckerracher,et al.  Nogo on the Go , 2002, Neuron.

[236]  M. Tuszynski,et al.  Neurotrophic factors and gene therapy in spinal cord injury. , 2000, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[237]  J. Silver,et al.  Injury-Induced Proteoglycans Inhibit the Potential for Laminin-Mediated Axon Growth on Astrocytic Scars , 1995, Experimental Neurology.

[238]  M. Aoki,et al.  The possible role of collateral sprouting in the functional restitution of corticospinal connections after spinal hemisection , 1986, Neuroscience Research.

[239]  V. Dietz,et al.  Locomotor capacity of spinal cord in paraplegic patients , 1995, Annals of neurology.

[240]  M. Schwab.  Nogo and axon regeneration , 2004, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[241]  D. Basso,et al.  Neuroanatomical substrates of functional recovery after experimental spinal cord injury: implications of basic science research for human spinal cord injury. , 2000, Physical therapy.

[242]  Simon Hippenmeyer,et al.  Development of the monosynaptic stretch reflex circuit , 2003, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[243]  J. P. Miller,et al.  Methods for a Multisite Randomized Trial to Investigate the Effect of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in Improving Upper Extremity Function among Adults Recovering from a Cerebrovascular Stroke , 2003, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[244]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Long‐term Depression of Horizontal Connections in Rat Motor Cortex , 1996, The European journal of neuroscience.

[245]  S. Rossignol,et al.  Enhancement of locomotor recovery following spinal cord injury. , 1994, Current opinion in neurology.

[246]  V R Edgerton,et al.  Recruitment of spinal motor pools during voluntary movements versus stepping after human spinal cord injury. , 2002, Journal of neurotrauma.

[247]  M. Schwab,et al.  Recovery from spinal cord injury mediated by antibodies to neurite growth inhibitors , 1995, Nature.

[248]  V R Edgerton,et al.  Retention of hindlimb stepping ability in adult spinal cats after the cessation of step training. , 1999, Journal of neurophysiology.

[249]  A. Fournier,et al.  Rho Kinase Inhibition Enhances Axonal Regeneration in the Injured CNS , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[250]  David G Wilkinson,et al.  Eph receptors and ephrins in neural development , 1999, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[251]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Dynamic organization of primary motor cortex output to target muscles in adult rats I. Long-term patterns of reorganization following motor or mixed peripheral nerve lesions , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[252]  M. Schwab,et al.  Patterns of Nogo mRNA and Protein Expression in the Developing and Adult Rat and After CNS Lesions , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[253]  J. Fawcett,et al.  Neurocan Is Upregulated in Injured Brain and in Cytokine-Treated Astrocytes , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[254]  Marco Domeniconi,et al.  Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Interacts with the Nogo66 Receptor to Inhibit Neurite Outgrowth , 2002, Neuron.

[255]  J. Silver,et al.  Glial cell extracellular matrix: boundaries for axon growth in development and regeneration , 1997, Cell and Tissue Research.

[256]  K. Fujimori,et al.  Expression of L1 and TAG‐1 in the corticospinal, callosal, and hippocampal commissural neurons in the developing rat telencephalon as revealed by retrograde and in situ hybridization double labeling , 2000, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[257]  Jun Shi,et al.  Ryk-mediated Wnt repulsion regulates posterior-directed growth of corticospinal tract , 2005, Nature Neuroscience.

[258]  R. J. Gregor,et al.  Effects of training on the recovery of full-weight-bearing stepping in the adult spinal cat , 1986, Experimental Neurology.

[259]  C. Garner,et al.  Mechanisms of vertebrate synaptogenesis. , 2005, Annual review of neuroscience.

[260]  D. J. Felleman,et al.  Progression of change following median nerve section in the cortical representation of the hand in areas 3b and 1 in adult owl and squirrel monkeys , 1983, Neuroscience.

[261]  Mu-ming Poo,et al.  Calcium signalling in the guidance of nerve growth by netrin-1 , 2000, Nature.

[262]  C. Goodman,et al.  Conserved Roles for Slit and Robo Proteins in Midline Commissural Axon Guidance , 2004, Neuron.

[263]  V R Edgerton,et al.  Full weight-bearing hindlimb standing following stand training in the adult spinal cat. , 1998, Journal of neurophysiology.

[264]  M. Cynader,et al.  Somatosensory cortical map changes following digit amputation in adult monkeys , 1984, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[265]  V. Dietz,et al.  Locomotor Recovery in Spinal Cord-Injured Rats Treated with an Antibody Neutralizing the Myelin-Associated Neurite Growth Inhibitor Nogo-A , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[266]  M. Stryker,et al.  Cortical Degeneration in the Absence of Neurotrophin Signaling Dendritic Retraction and Neuronal Loss after Removal of the Receptor TrkB , 2000, Neuron.

[267]  Fumio Nakamura,et al.  Identification of the Nogo inhibitor of axon regeneration as a Reticulon protein , 2000, Nature.

[268]  Jonathan R. Wolpaw,et al.  The complex structure of a simple memory , 1997, Trends in Neurosciences.

[269]  S. Wolf,et al.  What is constraint-induced therapy? , 2004, Rehabilitation nursing : the official journal of the Association of Rehabilitation Nurses.

[270]  M. Merzenich,et al.  Age-dependent capacity for somatosensory cortex reorganization in chronic spinal cats. , 1987, Brain research.

[271]  E. Schuman.  Neurotrophin regulation of synaptic transmission , 1999, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[272]  J Valls-Solé,et al.  Rapid modulation of human cortical motor outputs following ischaemic nerve block. , 1993, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[273]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Rapid reorganization of adult rat motor cortex somatic representation patterns after motor nerve injury. , 1988, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[274]  Mu-ming Poo,et al.  Presynaptic depolarization facilitates neurotrophin-induced synaptic potentiation , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[275]  H. Freund,et al.  Plasticity of the human motor cortex. , 1997, Advances in neurology.

[276]  S. Strittmatter,et al.  Regulating axon growth within the postnatal central nervous system. , 2004, Seminars in perinatology.

[277]  H. Ichijo.  Proteoglycans as cues for axonal guidance in formation of retinotectal or retinocollicular projections , 2004, Molecular Neurobiology.

[278]  H. Dai,et al.  Intervention strategies to enhance anatomical plasticity and recovery of function after spinal cord injury. , 1997, Advances in neurology.

[279]  J. Fawcett,et al.  Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans in the CNS injury response. , 2002, Progress in brain research.

[280]  John Cadwell,et al.  Focal magnetic coil stimulation reveals motor cortical system reorganized in humans after traumatic quadriplegia , 1990, Brain Research.

[281]  P. Caroni,et al.  Antibody against myelin-associated inhibitor of neurite growth neutralizes nonpermissive substrate properties of CNS white matter. , 2008, Neuron.

[282]  C. Horbinski,et al.  Dendritic growth induced by BMP-7 requires Smad1 and proteasome activity. , 2001, Journal of Neurobiology.

[283]  E. Bizzi,et al.  New perspectives on spinal motor systems , 2000, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[284]  J. Fawcett,et al.  Regeneration of CNS axons back to their target following treatment of adult rat brain with chondroitinase ABC , 2001, Nature Neuroscience.

[285]  M. Antal.  Termination areas of corticobulbar and corticospinal fibres in the rat. , 1984, Journal fur Hirnforschung.

[286]  T. Ferguson,et al.  Degradation of Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan Enhances the Neurite-Promoting Potential of Spinal Cord Tissue , 1998, Experimental Neurology.

[287]  J. Kapfhammer,et al.  Inverse patterns of myelination and GAP‐43 expression in the adult CNS: Neurite growth inhibitors as regulators of neuronal plasticity? , 1994, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[288]  Santiago Ramón y Cajal,et al.  Degeneration & regeneration of the nervous system , 1928 .

[289]  P. Gallagher,et al.  Glia Induce Dendritic Growth in Cultured Sympathetic Neurons by Modulating the Balance between Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) and BMP Antagonists , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[290]  S. Hunt,et al.  Differential Expression of Immediate Early Genes in Rubrospinal Neurons Following Axotomy in Rat , 1993, The European journal of neuroscience.

[291]  M. Schachner,et al.  The cell recognition molecule CHL1 is strongly upregulated by injured and regenerating thalamic neurons , 2000, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[292]  D. D.-B.,et al.  Degeneration and Regeneration of the Nervous System , 1930, Nature.

[293]  Stephen J. Smith,et al.  Neural activity and the dynamics of central nervous system development , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[294]  S. Cohen-Cory.  The Developing Synapse: Construction and Modulation of Synaptic Structures and Circuits , 2002, Science.

[295]  Ray D de Leon,et al.  Using robotics to teach the spinal cord to walk , 2002, Brain Research Reviews.

[296]  K. Pearson.  Proprioceptive regulation of locomotion , 1995, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[297]  A. Aguayo,et al.  Temporal changes in beta-tubulin and neurofilament mRNA levels after transection of adult rat retinal ganglion cell axons in the optic nerve , 1993, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[298]  A. Fournier,et al.  Repulsive factors and axon regeneration in the CNS , 2001, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[299]  N. Kudo,et al.  Development of descending fibers to the rat embryonic spinal cord , 1993, Neuroscience Research.

[300]  E. S. Ruthazer,et al.  Insights into activity-dependent map formation from the retinotectal system: a middle-of-the-brain perspective. , 2004, Journal of neurobiology.

[301]  James Q. Zheng.  Turning of nerve growth cones induced by localized increases in intracellular calcium ions , 2000, Nature.

[302]  K. Fouad,et al.  Anatomical Correlates of Locomotor Recovery Following Dorsal and Ventral Lesions of the Rat Spinal Cord , 2002, Experimental Neurology.

[303]  T. Shiga,et al.  Chemorepulsion and cell adhesion molecules in patterning initial trajectories of sensory axons , 2005, Neuroscience Research.

[304]  Marc Tessier-Lavigne,et al.  Conservation and divergence of axon guidance mechanisms , 1999, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[305]  C. Shatz,et al.  Developmental mechanisms that generate precise patterns of neuronal connectivity , 1993, Cell.

[306]  J. Schwab,et al.  Injury-related dynamic myelin/oligodendrocyte axon-outgrowth inhibition in the central nervous system , 2005, The Lancet.

[307]  John B. Thomas,et al.  Wnt-mediated axon guidance via the Drosophila Derailed receptor , 2003, Nature.

[308]  F. Seil,et al.  TrkB Receptor Ligands Promote Activity-Dependent Inhibitory Synaptogenesis , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[309]  L. C. Katz,et al.  Destabilization of Cortical Dendrites and Spines by BDNF , 1999, Neuron.

[310]  Stacey P. Memberg,et al.  Regeneration of adult axons in white matter tracts of the central nervous system , 1997, Nature.

[311]  M. Beattie.  Inflammation and apoptosis: linked therapeutic targets in spinal cord injury. , 2004, Trends in molecular medicine.

[312]  E. Taub.  Movement In Nonhuman Primates Deprived Of Somatosensory Feedback , 1976, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[313]  C. Métin,et al.  A role for netrin-1 in the guidance of cortical efferents. , 1997, Development.

[314]  H. M. Geller,et al.  Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration , 2005, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[315]  Kathleen M Friel,et al.  Role of sensory‐motor cortex activity in postnatal development of corticospinal axon terminals in the cat , 2005, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[316]  S. McMahon,et al.  Functional regeneration of sensory axons into the adult spinal cord , 2000, Nature.

[317]  Roland R Roy,et al.  Use of robotics in assessing the adaptive capacity of the rat lumbar spinal cord. , 2002, Progress in brain research.

[318]  P. Thibault,et al.  Oligodendrocyte‐myelin glycoprotein (OMgp) is an inhibitor of neurite outgrowth , 2002, Journal of neurochemistry.

[319]  S. Rossignol,et al.  Locomotor performance and adaptation after partial or complete spinal cord lesions in the cat. , 1999, Progress in brain research.

[320]  J. Grotta,et al.  Early overuse and disuse of the affected forelimb after moderately severe intraluminal suture occlusion of the middle cerebral artery in rats , 2001, Behavioural Brain Research.

[321]  G. Schneider,et al.  Retrograde cortical and axonal changes following lesions of the pyramidal tract , 1975, Brain Research.

[322]  B. Tomanek,et al.  Simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging in the rat spinal cord and brain , 2006, Experimental Neurology.

[323]  A. Scheibel,et al.  Degeneration and regeneration of the nervous system , 1960 .

[324]  R. Nudo.  Recovery after damage to motor cortical areas , 1999, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[325]  J. Kapfhammer,et al.  Inhibitors of neurite growth. , 1993, Annual review of neuroscience.

[326]  M. Hallett,et al.  Regional cerebral blood flow changes in motor cortical areas after transient anesthesia of the forearm , 1995, Annals of neurology.

[327]  A. B. Huber,et al.  Signaling at the growth cone: ligand-receptor complexes and the control of axon growth and guidance. , 2003, Annual review of neuroscience.

[328]  J. Levine,et al.  Identification of a Neuronal Cell Surface Receptor for a Growth Inhibitory Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan (NG2) , 1997, Journal of neurochemistry.

[329]  C. Burgar,et al.  Robot-assisted movement training compared with conventional therapy techniques for the rehabilitation of upper-limb motor function after stroke. , 2002, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[330]  R. Prinjha,et al.  Neurobiology: Inhibitor of neurite outgrowth in humans , 2000, Nature.

[331]  V. Perry,et al.  Macrophage responses to central and peripheral nerve injury. , 1993, Advances in neurology.

[332]  V. Maquet,et al.  Alignment of glial cells stimulates directional neurite growth of CNS neurons in vitro , 2004, Neuroscience.

[333]  T. Jones,et al.  Use-dependent growth of pyramidal neurons after neocortical damage , 1994, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[334]  M. Merzenich,et al.  Reorganization of cortical representations of the hand following alterations of skin inputs induced by nerve injury, skin island transfers, and experience. , 1993, Journal of hand therapy : official journal of the American Society of Hand Therapists.

[335]  M. Nicolelis,et al.  Immediate and simultaneous sensory reorganization at cortical and subcortical levels of the somatosensory system. , 1997, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[336]  C. Bandtlow,et al.  Brain derived versican V2 is a potent inhibitor of axonal growth. , 2000, Journal of cell science.

[337]  E. Field-Fote.  Combined use of body weight support, functional electric stimulation, and treadmill training to improve walking ability in individuals with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury. , 2001, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[338]  M. Schwab,et al.  Two membrane protein fractions from rat central myelin with inhibitory properties for neurite growth and fibroblast spreading , 1988, The Journal of cell biology.

[339]  K. Fouad,et al.  Reorganization of descending motor tracts in the rat spinal cord , 2002, The European journal of neuroscience.

[340]  James W. Fawcett,et al.  Chondroitinase ABC promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury , 2002, Nature.

[341]  B. J. Baumgartner,et al.  Neurotrophin-3 Expressed In Situ Induces Axonal Plasticity in the Adult Injured Spinal Cord , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[342]  John H. Martin,et al.  Corticospinal System Development Depends on Motor Experience , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[343]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Dynamic organization of primary motor cortex output to target muscles in adult rats II. Rapid reorganization following motor nerve lesions , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[344]  M Hallett,et al.  Reorganization of corticospinal pathways following spinal cord injury , 1991, Neurology.

[345]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Plasticity and primary motor cortex. , 2000, Annual review of neuroscience.

[346]  Frederic Libersat,et al.  Mechanisms of dendritic maturation , 2004, Molecular Neurobiology.

[347]  R. Franklin,et al.  Transplant mediated repair of the central nervous system: an imminent solution? , 2002, Current opinion in neurology.

[348]  Hollis T. Cline,et al.  Glutamate Receptor Activity Is Required for Normal Development of Tectal Cell Dendrites In Vivo , 1998, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[349]  B. Goldstein,et al.  Axonal sprouting following incomplete spinal cord injury: an experimental model. , 1997, The journal of spinal cord medicine.

[350]  M. Schwab,et al.  Lesioned corticospinal tract axons regenerate in myelin-free rat spinal cord. , 1990, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[351]  KM Jacobs,et al.  Reshaping the cortical motor map by unmasking latent intracortical connections , 1991, Science.

[352]  Thomas M. Jessell,et al.  Chemotropic guidance of developing axons in the mammalian central nervous system , 1988, Nature.

[353]  Theresa A. Jones,et al.  Overgrowth and pruning of dendrites in adult rats recovering from neocortical damage , 1992, Brain Research.

[354]  A. Fournier,et al.  Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein as a Functional Ligand for the Nogo-66 Receptor , 2002, Science.

[355]  J. Kaas,et al.  Reorganization in Primary Motor Cortex of Primates with Long-Standing Therapeutic Amputations , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[356]  V. Edgerton,et al.  Plasticity of the spinal neural circuitry after injury. , 2004, Annual review of neuroscience.

[357]  V. Edgerton,et al.  Increased expression of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD67) in feline lumbar spinal cord after complete thoracic spinal cord transection , 2000, Journal of neuroscience research.

[358]  S. B. Kater,et al.  Role of intracellular calcium in NI-35-evoked collapse of neuronal growth cones. , 1993, Science.

[359]  W. Rymer,et al.  Robotic Devices for Movement Therapy After Stroke: Current Status and Challenges to Clinical Acceptance , 2002, Topics in stroke rehabilitation.

[360]  Mu-ming Poo,et al.  Neurotrophins as synaptic modulators , 2001, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[361]  F. Gage,et al.  Activity-dependent regulation of neuronal plasticity and self repair. , 2000, Progress in brain research.

[362]  E. Joosten,et al.  Axon guidance of outgrowing corticospinal fibres in the rat , 1999, Journal of anatomy.

[363]  D J Felleman,et al.  Recovery of normal topography in the somatosensory cortex of monkeys after nerve crush and regeneration. , 1983, Science.

[364]  M. Schwab,et al.  Long-Lasting Sprouting and Gene Expression Changes Induced by the Monoclonal Antibody IN-1 in the Adult Spinal Cord , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[365]  M. Schwab,et al.  Oligodendrocytes and CNS myelin are nonpermissive substrates for neurite growth and fibroblast spreading in vitro , 1988, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[366]  R. Coggeshall,et al.  Peripheral nerve injury triggers central sprouting of myelinated afferents , 1992, Nature.

[367]  N. Hogan,et al.  Robot-aided sensorimotor arm training improves outcome in patients with chronic stroke , 2003, Neurology.

[368]  Nicholas C Spitzer,et al.  Activity-dependent neuronal differentiation prior to synapse formation: the functions of calcium transients , 2002, Journal of Physiology-Paris.

[369]  K. Fouad,et al.  Cervical sprouting of corticospinal fibers after thoracic spinal cord injury accompanies shifts in evoked motor responses , 2001, Current Biology.

[370]  V. Dietz,et al.  Locomotor activity in spinal man , 1994, The Lancet.

[371]  K. Barron,et al.  Neurons of Layer Vb of Rat Sensorimotor Cortex Atrophy But Do Not Die After Thoracic Cord Transection , 1988, Journal of neuropathology and experimental neurology.

[372]  T. Terashima.  Anatomy, development and lesion-induced plasticity of rodent corticospinal tract , 1995, Neuroscience Research.

[373]  M. Schwab,et al.  Rat CNS white matter, but not gray matter, is nonpermissive for neuronal cell adhesion and fiber outgrowth , 1989, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[374]  L. Olson.  Regeneration in the adult central nervous system: Experimental repair strategies , 1997, Nature Medicine.

[375]  Mario I. Romero,et al.  Forward Signaling Mediated by Ephrin-B3 Prevents Contralateral Corticospinal Axons from Recrossing the Spinal Cord Midline , 2001, Neuron.

[376]  M. Schwab,et al.  Delayed Treatment with Monoclonal Antibody IN-1 1 Week after Stroke Results in Recovery of Function and Corticorubral Plasticity in Adult Rats , 2005, Journal of cerebral blood flow and metabolism : official journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism.

[377]  V R Edgerton,et al.  Locomotor capacity attributable to step training versus spontaneous recovery after spinalization in adult cats. , 1998, Journal of neurophysiology.