Pulse wave analysis and pulse wave velocity: a review of blood pressure interpretation 100 years after Korotkov.

The pulsatile component of blood pressure (ie, pulse pressure) has received considerable attention as an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. In particular, central blood pressure measurements in the ascending aorta or in the carotid artery are expected to be more useful than conventional brachial pressure measurements for predicting cardiovascular events because central pressure, not the brachial pressure, is the pressure that target organs encounter. Due to wave reflection, the blood pressure in the upper limb does not represent the central blood pressure; therefore, leading researchers have enthusiastically promoted a noninvasive method of measuring central blood pressure and the resulting aortic stiffness. Until now, there has been an increasing body of evidence to support the accuracy and superiority of central blood pressure measurements as well as the assessment of aortic properties over classical brachial pressure measurements. In this review, the information regarding these "central" indices derived from 2 main methods, namely "pulse wave analysis" and "pulse wave velocity", for the application of central blood pressure measurements and arterial stiffness to clinical study and practice, has been summarized.

[1]  S. Laurent,et al.  Aortic Stiffness Is an Independent Predictor of Primary Coronary Events in Hypertensive Patients: A Longitudinal Study , 2002, Hypertension.

[2]  M. O'Rourke,et al.  873-6 Disparate effects of aging on indices of aortic stiffness and wave reflection , 2004 .

[3]  J. Neaton,et al.  Blood Pressure (Systolic and Diastolic) and Risk of Fatal Coronary Heart Disease , 1989, Hypertension.

[4]  M. Jaffrin,et al.  Aortic input impedance in normal man and arterial hypertension: its modification during changes in aortic pressure. , 1982, Cardiovascular research.

[5]  R H Fagard,et al.  Effect of age on brachial artery wall properties differs from the aorta and is gender dependent: a population study. , 2000, Hypertension.

[6]  Michael F O'Rourke,et al.  Augmentation of the aortic and central arterial pressure waveform , 2004, Blood pressure monitoring.

[7]  M. E. Safar,et al.  Aortic Pulse Wave Velocity Predicts Cardiovascular Mortality in Subjects >70 Years of Age , 2001, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[8]  M E Safar,et al.  Improvement in Blood Pressure, Arterial Stiffness and Wave Reflections With a Very-Low-Dose Perindopril/Indapamide Combination in Hypertensive Patient: A Comparison With Atenolol , 2001, Hypertension.

[9]  A. Mason.  A Century of Arterial Hypertension , 1998 .

[10]  R. Collins,et al.  Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies , 2002, The Lancet.

[11]  W. H. Phelan,et al.  A Longitudinal Study of Coronary Heart Disease , 1963, Circulation.

[12]  Chang Gyu Park,et al.  Assessment of arterial stiffness index as a clinical parameter for atherosclerotic coronary artery disease. , 2004, Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society.

[13]  P. Rothwell,et al.  Pulse pressure is independently associated with carotid plaque ulceration , 2003, Journal of hypertension.

[14]  H. Keen,et al.  SMOKING AND OTHER RISK FACTORS FOR CORONARY HEART-DISEASE IN BRITISH CIVIL SERVANTS , 1976, The Lancet.

[15]  Hiroshi Miyashita,et al.  Noninvasive evaluation of the influence of aortic wave reflection on left ventricular ejection during auxotonic contraction , 2005, Heart and Vessels.

[16]  N. Westerhof,et al.  Aortic Input Impedance in Normal Man: Relationship to Pressure Wave Forms , 1980, Circulation.

[17]  D. Levy,et al.  Changes in Arterial Stiffness and Wave Reflection With Advancing Age in Healthy Men and Women: The Framingham Heart Study , 2004, Hypertension.

[18]  A P Avolio,et al.  Effects of aging on arterial distensibility in populations with high and low prevalence of hypertension: comparison between urban and rural communities in China. , 1985, Circulation.

[19]  M. Karamanoglu,et al.  An analysis of the relationship between central aortic and peripheral upper limb pressure waves in man. , 1993, European heart journal.

[20]  M. O'Rourke,et al.  Influence of ventricular ejection on the relationship between central aortic and brachial pressure pulse in man. , 1970, Cardiovascular research.

[21]  L. Boxt.  McDonald's blood flow in arteries , 1991, CardioVascular and Interventional Radiology.

[22]  F. Yin,et al.  Regional pulse wave velocities in hypertensive and normotensive humans. , 1990, Cardiovascular research.

[23]  S. Anderson,et al.  Aortic Pulse-Wave Velocity and Its Relationship to Mortality in Diabetes and Glucose Intolerance: An Integrated Index of Vascular Function? , 2002, Circulation.

[24]  Albert Hofman,et al.  Arterial Stiffness and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke: The Rotterdam Study , 2006, Circulation.

[25]  H. Dustan.  Isolated systolic hypertension: a long-neglected cause of cardiovascular complications. , 1990, The American journal of medicine.

[26]  T. Dawber,et al.  The Framingham Study: The Epidemiology of Atherosclerotic Disease , 1980 .

[27]  Karla Kerlikowske,et al.  Risks of untreated and treated isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly: meta-analysis of outcome trials , 2000, The Lancet.

[28]  F. Messerli.  This day 50 years ago. , 1995, The New England journal of medicine.

[29]  Hideya Yamamoto,et al.  Pulse wave velocity predicts cardiovascular mortality: findings from the Hawaii-Los Angeles-Hiroshima study. , 2005, Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society.

[30]  Thomas Weber,et al.  Arterial Stiffness, Wave Reflections, and the Risk of Coronary Artery Disease , 2004, Circulation.

[31]  H. Dustan.  Isolates systolic hypertension: A long-neglected cause of cardiovascular complications , 1989 .

[32]  M F O'Rourke,et al.  Pressure and flow waves in systemic arteries and the anatomical design of the arterial system. , 1967, Journal of applied physiology.

[33]  Tine Willum Hansen,et al.  Prognostic Value of Aortic Pulse Wave Velocity as Index of Arterial Stiffness in the General Population , 2006, Circulation.

[34]  M. García-palmieri,et al.  Risk factors of coronary heart disease: a prospective epidemiologic study in Puerto Rico , 1986 .

[35]  S. Syme,et al.  Epidemiologic studies of coronary heart disease and stroke in Japanese men living in Japan, Hawaii and California: demographic, physical, dietary and biochemical characteristics. , 1974, Journal of chronic diseases.

[36]  D L McGee,et al.  Systolic blood pressure, arterial rigidity, and risk of stroke. The Framingham study. , 1981, JAMA.

[37]  S. Lewington.  Prospective studies collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies (vol 360, pg 1903, 2002) , 2003 .

[38]  N. Tanaka,et al.  Brachial -- ankle pulse wave velocity is a simple and independent predictor of prognosis in patients with acute coronary syndrome. , 2005, Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society.

[39]  A. Dyer.  An analysis of the relationship of systolic blood pressure, serum cholesterol, and smoking to 14-year mortality in the Chicago Peoples Gas Company Study- II. Coronary and cardiovascular-renal mortality in two competing risk models. , 1975, Journal of chronic diseases.

[40]  S Sasayama,et al.  Non-invasive assessment of the age related changes in stiffness of major branches of the human arteries. , 1987, Cardiovascular research.

[41]  J A Staessen,et al.  Comparison of active treatment and placebo in older Chinese patients with isolated systolic hypertension , 1998, Journal of hypertension.

[42]  Thomas Weber,et al.  Increased arterial wave reflections predict severe cardiovascular events in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions. , 2005, European heart journal.

[43]  M. Safar,et al.  Selective reduction of cardiac mass and central blood pressure on low-dose combination perindopril/indapamide in hypertensive subjects , 2004, Journal of hypertension.

[44]  Jean-Claude Tardif,et al.  Relation between conduit vessel stiffness (assessed by tonometry) and endothelial function (assessed by flow-mediated dilatation) in patients with and without coronary heart disease. , 2003, The American journal of cardiology.

[45]  C. Fisher.  THE ASCENDANCY OF DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE OVER SYSTOLIC , 1985, The Lancet.

[46]  Y. Tardy,et al.  Conduit artery compliance and distensibility are not necessarily reduced in hypertension. , 1992, Hypertension.

[47]  R. Bright.  Reports of Medical Cases, Selected with a View of Illustrating the Symptoms and Cure of Diseases by a Reference to Morbid Anatomy , 1828, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.

[48]  B. Dahlöf,et al.  Morbidity and mortality in the Swedish Trial in Old Patients with Hypertension (STOP-Hypertension) , 1991, The Lancet.

[49]  J. Blacher,et al.  Impact of Aortic Stiffness Attenuation on Survival of Patients in End-Stage Renal Failure , 2001, Circulation.

[50]  J. Mackenzie.  Principles of Diagnosis and Treatment in Heart Affections , 1916, Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal (1883).

[51]  Kozo Hirata,et al.  Clinical use of indices determined non-invasively from the radial and carotid pressure waveforms , 2006, Blood pressure monitoring.

[52]  C. Hayward,et al.  Noninvasive determination of age-related changes in the human arterial pulse. , 1989, Circulation.

[53]  M E Safar,et al.  Arterial Wave Reflections and Survival in End-Stage Renal Failure , 2001, Hypertension.

[54]  C. H. Chen,et al.  Estimation of central aortic pressure waveform by mathematical transformation of radial tonometry pressure. Validation of generalized transfer function. , 1997, Circulation.

[55]  Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). SHEP Cooperative Research Group. , 1991, JAMA.

[56]  A. Dyer,et al.  Multivariate analysis of the relationship of seven variables to blood pressure: findings of the Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry, 1967-1972. , 1975, Journal of chronic diseases.

[57]  T S Warrender,et al.  Randomised trial of treatment of hypertension in elderly patients in primary care. , 1986, British medical journal.

[58]  MRC trial of treatment of mild hypertension: principal results. Medical Research Council Working Party. , 1985, British medical journal.

[59]  J. Blacher,et al.  Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. , 1999, Circulation.

[60]  N. Tanaka,et al.  Close relationship between sympathetic activation and coronary microvascular dysfunction during acute hyperglycemia in subjects with atherosclerotic risk factors. , 2007, Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society.

[61]  R. Collins,et al.  Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease Part 2, short-term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context , 1990, The Lancet.

[62]  R. Collins,et al.  Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease Part 1, prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias , 1990, The Lancet.

[63]  Martin G. Larson,et al.  Does the Relation of Blood Pressure to Coronary Heart Disease Risk Change With Aging?: The Framingham Heart Study , 2001, Circulation.

[64]  K Hirschhorn,et al.  Letter: Immunotherapy for colorectal cancer. , 1976, Lancet.

[65]  D. Levy,et al.  Is pulse pressure useful in predicting risk for coronary heart Disease? The Framingham heart study. , 1999, Circulation.

[66]  Michael J. Mulvany,et al.  Location of Resistance Arteries , 2001, Journal of Vascular Research.

[67]  M. O'Rourke,et al.  Prospective Evaluation of a Method for Estimating Ascending Aortic Pressure From the Radial Artery Pressure Waveform , 2001, Hypertension.

[68]  P. F. Kauff.  Group , 2000, Elegant Design.

[69]  J. Blacher,et al.  Central Pulse Pressure and Mortality in End-Stage Renal Disease , 2002, Hypertension.

[70]  E. O’Brien,et al.  Regression of left ventricular mass in hypertensive patients treated with perindopril/indapamide as a first-line combination: the REASON echocardiography study. , 2004, American journal of hypertension.

[71]  Alun D. Hughes,et al.  Differential Impact of Blood Pressure–Lowering Drugs on Central Aortic Pressure and Clinical Outcomes: Principal Results of the Conduit Artery Function Evaluation (CAFE) Study , 2006 .

[72]  A. J. T. M. Mcsp.  A Century of Arterial Hypertension , 1998 .

[73]  C. Dollery,et al.  Medical Research Council trial of treatment of hypertension in older adults: principal results. , 1992 .

[74]  J. Fleg,et al.  Effects of Age and Aerobic Capacit on Arterial Stiffness in Healthy Adults , 1993, Circulation.

[75]  Jan A Staessen,et al.  Randomised double-blind comparison of placebo and active treatment for older patients with isolated systolic hypertension , 1997, The Lancet.

[76]  A P Avolio,et al.  Effects of aging on changing arterial compliance and left ventricular load in a northern Chinese urban community. , 1983, Circulation.

[77]  R. B. Franklin,et al.  Quantitative Cardiovascular Studies , 1980 .