Paper-based microfluidic point-of-care diagnostic devices.

Dipstick and lateral-flow formats have dominated rapid diagnostics over the last three decades. These formats gained popularity in the consumer markets due to their compactness, portability and facile interpretation without external instrumentation. However, lack of quantitation in measurements has challenged the demand of existing assay formats in consumer markets. Recently, paper-based microfluidics has emerged as a multiplexable point-of-care platform which might transcend the capabilities of existing assays in resource-limited settings. However, paper-based microfluidics can enable fluid handling and quantitative analysis for potential applications in healthcare, veterinary medicine, environmental monitoring and food safety. Currently, in its early development stages, paper-based microfluidics is considered a low-cost, lightweight, and disposable technology. The aim of this review is to discuss: (1) fabrication of paper-based microfluidic devices, (2) functionalisation of microfluidic components to increase the capabilities and the performance, (3) introduction of existing detection techniques to the paper platform and (4) exploration of extracting quantitative readouts via handheld devices and camera phones. Additionally, this review includes challenges to scaling up, commercialisation and regulatory issues. The factors which limit paper-based microfluidic devices to become real world products and future directions are also identified.

[1]  Meng Li,et al.  Battery-triggered ultrasensitive electrochemiluminescence detection on microfluidic paper-based immunodevice based on dual-signal amplification strategy. , 2013, Analytica chimica acta.

[2]  S A BERSON,et al.  Quantitative aspects of the reaction between insulin and insulin-binding antibody. , 1959, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[3]  Jinghua Yu,et al.  3D origami-based multifunction-integrated immunodevice: low-cost and multiplexed sandwich chemiluminescence immunoassay on microfluidic paper-based analytical device. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[4]  Anthony Costello,et al.  Integrated management of childhood illness , 1997, The Lancet.

[5]  Andres W. Martinez,et al.  Fully enclosed microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[6]  J. C. Roberts,et al.  The chemistry of paper , 1996 .

[7]  Scott T Phillips,et al.  Three-dimensional, paper-based microfluidic devices containing internal timers for running time-based diagnostic assays. , 2013, Methods in molecular biology.

[8]  Charles S Henry,et al.  Microfluidic paper-based analytical device for particulate metals. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[9]  George M Whitesides,et al.  Thin, lightweight, foldable thermochromic displays on paper. , 2009, Lab on a chip.

[10]  R. Crooks,et al.  Three-dimensional paper microfluidic devices assembled using the principles of origami. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[11]  Emanuel Carrilho,et al.  Paper-based ELISA. , 2010, Angewandte Chemie.

[12]  Donald C. Cooper,et al.  Mobile Image Ratiometry for the Detection of Botrytis cinerea (Gray Mold) , 2012 .

[13]  Caroline A Sullivan,et al.  The Water Poverty Index: development and application at the community scale , 2003 .

[14]  Robert Pelton,et al.  Detection of DNA using bioactive paper strips. , 2009, Chemical communications.

[15]  I. McKelvie,et al.  A paper-based device for measurement of reactive phosphate in water. , 2012, Talanta.

[16]  Niels Skovgaard,et al.  Foodborne Disease Outbreaks, Guidelines for investigation and control , 2009 .

[17]  Dhananjaya Dendukuri,et al.  'Fab-chips': a versatile, fabric-based platform for low-cost, rapid and multiplexed diagnostics. , 2011, Lab on a chip.

[18]  S. Shevkoplyas,et al.  Integrated separation of blood plasma from whole blood for microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[19]  R. Peeling,et al.  Point-of-care tests for diagnosing infections in the developing world. , 2010, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[20]  Mohammad Faghri,et al.  A fluidic diode, valves, and a sequential-loading circuit fabricated on layered paper. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[21]  Shenguang Ge,et al.  A novel chemiluminescence paper microfluidic biosensor based on enzymatic reaction for uric acid determination. , 2011, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[22]  Rainer Hofmann-Wellenhof,et al.  Telemedicine and teledermatology: Past, present and future , 2008, Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft = Journal of the German Society of Dermatology : JDDG.

[23]  W. Dungchai,et al.  Lab-on-paper with dual electrochemical/colorimetric detection for simultaneous determination of gold and iron. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[24]  J. Allain,et al.  Improving blood safety in resource‐poor settings , 2004, Vox sanguinis.

[25]  S. Ramachandran,et al.  A low cost point-of-care viscous sample preparation device for molecular diagnosis in the developing world; an example of microfluidic origami. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[26]  J. Rusling,et al.  Paper-based electrochemiluminescent screening for genotoxic activity in the environment. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[27]  Jinghua Yu,et al.  Paper-based three-dimensional electrochemical immunodevice based on multi-walled carbon nanotubes functionalized paper for sensitive point-of-care testing. , 2012, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[28]  Zhike He,et al.  Determination of glucose and uric acid with bienzyme colorimetry on microfluidic paper-based analysis devices. , 2012, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[29]  S. S. Sibbett,et al.  Multiplex lateral-flow test strips fabricated by two-dimensional shaping. , 2009, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[30]  Paul Yager,et al.  Enhanced sensitivity of lateral flow tests using a two-dimensional paper network format. , 2011, Analytical chemistry.

[31]  Stefan Thalhammer,et al.  Development of a disposable and highly sensitive paper-based immunosensor for early diagnosis of Asian soybean rust. , 2013, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[32]  G. Whitesides.  The origins and the future of microfluidics , 2006, Nature.

[33]  Gregory G. Lewis,et al.  Quantifying analytes in paper-based microfluidic devices without using external electronic readers. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[34]  Bin Liu,et al.  Paper-based fluoroimmunoassay for rapid and sensitive detection of antigen , 2012 .

[35]  Paul N Newton,et al.  Counterfeit anti-infective drugs. , 2006, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[36]  Kraisid Tontisirin,et al.  Food-based strategies to meet the challenges of micronutrient malnutrition in the developing world , 2002, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society.

[37]  Jinghua Yu,et al.  Microfluidic paper-based chemiluminescence biosensor for simultaneous determination of glucose and uric acid. , 2011, Lab on a chip.

[38]  B. Allegranzi,et al.  Burden of endemic health-care-associated infection in developing countries: systematic review and meta-analysis , 2011, The Lancet.

[39]  Claudio Parolo,et al.  Paper-based nanobiosensors for diagnostics. , 2013, Chemical Society reviews.

[40]  B. Kirby.  Micro- and nanoscale fluid mechanics : transport in microfluidic devices , 2010 .

[41]  Xuena Zhu,et al.  Development of paper-based analytical kit for point-of-care testing , 2013, Expert review of molecular diagnostics.

[42]  Gregory G. Lewis,et al.  High throughput method for prototyping three-dimensional, paper-based microfluidic devices. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[43]  Aydogan Ozcan,et al.  Integrated rapid-diagnostic-test reader platform on a cellphone. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[44]  John N Nkengasong,et al.  Critical role of developing national strategic plans as a guide to strengthen laboratory health systems in resource-poor settings. , 2009, American journal of clinical pathology.

[45]  Min Su Han,et al.  A simple, fast, and easy assay for transition metal-catalyzed coupling reactions using a paper-based colorimetric iodide sensor. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[46]  Aydogan Ozcan,et al.  A personalized food allergen testing platform on a cellphone. , 2013, Lab on a chip.

[47]  Ratmir Derda,et al.  Portable self-contained cultures for phage and bacteria made of paper and tape. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[48]  David J. You,et al.  Cell-phone-based measurement of TSH using Mie scatter optimized lateral flow assays. , 2013, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[49]  Pedro Barquinha,et al.  Gold on paper-paper platform for Au-nanoprobe TB detection. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[50]  R. Richards-Kortum,et al.  A paper and plastic device for performing recombinase polymerase amplification of HIV DNA. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[51]  Jan M. Nordbotten,et al.  Interpretation of macroscale variables in Darcy's law , 2007 .

[52]  K. Mirica,et al.  Mechanical drawing of gas sensors on paper. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[53]  Arben Merkoçi,et al.  All-integrated and highly sensitive paper based device with sample treatment platform for Cd2+ immunodetection in drinking/tap waters. , 2013, Analytical chemistry.

[54]  Nidhi Kalra,et al.  2006 International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development , 2006, 2006 International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development.

[55]  Bo Liedberg,et al.  Naked eye detection of lung cancer associated miRNA by paper based biosensing platform. , 2013, Analytical chemistry.

[56]  L. M. Davies,et al.  Development of a bioactive paper sensor for detection of neurotoxins using piezoelectric inkjet printing of sol-gel-derived bioinks. , 2009, Analytical chemistry.

[57]  Ramesh Raskar,et al.  Dual of Shack-Hartmann Optometry using Mobile Phones , 2010 .

[58]  Audrey K. Ellerbee,et al.  Quantifying colorimetric assays in paper-based microfluidic devices by measuring the transmission of light through paper. , 2009, Analytical chemistry.

[59]  S. S. Olmsted,et al.  Requirements for high impact diagnostics in the developing world , 2006, Nature.

[60]  G T Ross,et al.  A radioimmunoassay which specifically measures human chorionic gonadotropin in the presence of human luteinizing hormone. , 1972, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[61]  Paul Yager,et al.  Laboratory-scale protein striping system for patterning biomolecules onto paper-based immunochromatographic test strips. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[62]  Xianqiao Hu,et al.  Method for fabrication of paper-based microfluidic devices by alkylsilane self-assembling and UV/O3-patterning. , 2013, Analytical chemistry.

[63]  Herman Yagoda,et al.  Applications of Confined Spot Tests in Analytical Chemistry: Preliminary Paper , 1937 .

[64]  Zhenyu Lin,et al.  Mechanism for inhibition of Ru(bpy)32+/DBAE electrochemiluminescence system by dopamine , 2009 .

[65]  Jian-Jun Shi,et al.  Electrochemical detection of Pb and Cd in paper-based microfluidic devices , 2012 .

[66]  Li Shen,et al.  Point-of-care colorimetric detection with a smartphone. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[67]  Daniel Citterio,et al.  Inkjet-printed paperfluidic immuno-chemical sensing device , 2010, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[68]  M. Sukwattanasinitt,et al.  Polydiacetylene paper-based colorimetric sensor array for vapor phase detection and identification of volatile organic compounds , 2012 .

[69]  Jeffrey Wasserman,et al.  Global health diagnostics , 2006, Nature.

[70]  Paul Yager,et al.  Visualization and measurement of flow in two-dimensional paper networks. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[71]  S. Hossain,et al.  β-Galactosidase-based colorimetric paper sensor for determination of heavy metals. , 2011, Analytical chemistry.

[72]  A. H. Free,et al.  Simple specific test for urine glucose. , 1957, Clinical chemistry.

[73]  Junfei Tian,et al.  Paper-based microfluidic devices by plasma treatment. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[74]  E. Southern.  Detection of specific sequences among DNA fragments separated by gel electrophoresis. , 1975, Journal of molecular biology.

[75]  S. T. Phillips,et al.  Fluidic timers for time-dependent, point-of-care assays on paper. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[76]  Gil Garnier,et al.  Paper diagnostic for instantaneous blood typing. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[77]  George M. Whitesides,et al.  A Paper-Based Multiplexed Transaminase Test for Low-Cost, Point-of-Care Liver Function Testing , 2012, Science Translational Medicine.

[78]  George M Whitesides,et al.  Electrochemical sensing in paper-based microfluidic devices. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[79]  Elazer R. Edelman,et al.  Adv. Drug Delivery Rev. , 1997 .

[80]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Understanding wax printing: a simple micropatterning process for paper-based microfluidics. , 2009, Analytical chemistry.

[81]  W. Dungchai,et al.  A low-cost, simple, and rapid fabrication method for paper-based microfluidics using wax screen-printing. , 2011, The Analyst.

[82]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Foldable Printed Circuit Boards on Paper Substrates , 2010 .

[83]  P. Yager,et al.  Point-of-care diagnostics for global health. , 2008, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[84]  Bingcheng Lin,et al.  Rapid prototyping of paper‐based microfluidics with wax for low‐cost, portable bioassay , 2009, Electrophoresis.

[85]  Samuel K Sia,et al.  Lab-on-a-chip devices for global health: past studies and future opportunities. , 2007, Lab on a chip.

[86]  R. Aris.  On the dispersion of a solute in a fluid flowing through a tube , 1956, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[87]  Gil Garnier,et al.  Validation of paper-based assay for rapid blood typing. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[88]  宁北芳,et al.  疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A , 2005 .

[89]  Yi Lu,et al.  Aptamer-based origami paper analytical device for electrochemical detection of adenosine. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[90]  J. Aker.  Does Digital Divide or Provide? The Impact of Cell Phones on Grain Markets in Niger , 2008 .

[91]  David Beebe,et al.  Engineers are from PDMS-land, Biologists are from Polystyrenia. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[92]  Wei Shen,et al.  Fabrication of paper-based microfluidic sensors by printing. , 2010, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.

[93]  H. Towbin,et al.  Electrophoretic transfer of proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose sheets: procedure and some applications. , 1979, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[94]  R. Rosenfeld.  Nature , 2009, Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery.

[95]  Temsiri Songjaroen,et al.  Blood separation on microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[96]  Bill Bynum,et al.  Lancet , 2015, The Lancet.

[97]  Ulrich J. Krull,et al.  Paper-based solid-phase nucleic acid hybridization assay using immobilized quantum dots as donors in fluorescence resonance energy transfer. , 2013, Analytical chemistry.

[98]  Leslie Y Yeo,et al.  Microfluidic devices for bioapplications. , 2011, Small.

[99]  C. Culbertson,et al.  Paper-based microfluidic devices for analysis of clinically relevant analytes present in urine and saliva , 2010, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[100]  Jinghua Yu,et al.  Electrochemical immunoassay on a 3D microfluidic paper-based device. , 2012, Chemical Communications.

[101]  Paul Yager,et al.  Two-dimensional paper network format that enables simple multistep assays for use in low-resource settings in the context of malaria antigen detection. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[102]  Shreefal S. Mehta.  Commercializing Successful Biomedical Technologies: Basic Principles for the Development of Drugs, Diagnostics and Devices , 2008 .

[103]  M. Sukwattanasinitt,et al.  Solvent colorimetric paper-based polydiacetylene sensors from diacetylene lipids. , 2011, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[104]  Mohammed Bello,et al.  Emerging diseases and implications for Millennium Development Goals in Africa by 2015 - an overview. , 2010, Veterinaria italiana.

[105]  Wei Shen,et al.  Paper-based blood typing device that reports patient's blood type "in writing". , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[106]  O. Urakawa,et al.  Small - , 2007 .

[107]  Zhaowei Zhong,et al.  Investigation of wax and paper materials for the fabrication of paper-based microfluidic devices , 2012 .

[108]  Ralph H. Müller,et al.  AUTOMATIC PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY , 1949 .

[109]  R. Webster,et al.  Emergence of influenza A viruses. , 2001, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[110]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Simple silver nanoparticle colorimetric sensing for copper by paper-based devices. , 2012, Talanta.

[111]  J. Justin Gooding,et al.  Recent Advances in Paper-Based Sensors , 2012, Sensors.

[112]  Meng Zhang,et al.  Three-dimensional paper-based electrochemiluminescence device for simultaneous detection of Pb2+ and Hg2+ based on potential-control technique. , 2013, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[113]  David N Breslauer,et al.  Mobile Phone Based Clinical Microscopy for Global Health Applications , 2009, PloS one.

[114]  P. Sharp,et al.  AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications. , 2000, Science.

[115]  Róbert E. Gyurcsányi,et al.  Towards Protein Assays on Paper Platforms with Potentiometric Detection , 2012 .

[116]  Samuel K Sia,et al.  Commercialization of microfluidic point-of-care diagnostic devices. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[117]  Emanuel Carrilho,et al.  The potential and application of microfluidic paper-based separation devices. , 2010, Bioanalysis.

[118]  E. W. Washburn.  The Dynamics of Capillary Flow , 1921 .

[119]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Diagnostics for the developing world: microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[120]  C. Plotz,et al.  The latex fixation test. II. Results in rheumatoid arthritis. , 1956, The American journal of medicine.

[121]  H. S. Wolff,et al.  iRun: Horizontal and Vertical Shape of a Region-Based Graph Compression , 2022, Sensors.

[122]  Jinghua Yu,et al.  Three-dimensional paper-based electrochemiluminescence immunodevice for multiplexed measurement of biomarkers and point-of-care testing. , 2012, Biomaterials.

[123]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Novel, simple and low-cost alternative method for fabrication of paper-based microfluidics by wax dipping. , 2011, Talanta.

[124]  大房 健.  基礎講座 電気泳動(Electrophoresis) , 2005 .

[125]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Simple and rapid colorimetric detection of Hg(II) by a paper-based device using silver nanoplates. , 2012, Talanta.

[126]  S. Aguirre,et al.  Paper-based bioassays using gold nanoparticle colorimetric probes. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[127]  Wei Shen,et al.  Thread as a versatile material for low-cost microfluidic diagnostics. , 2010, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[128]  Wei Wang,et al.  Paper disk on screen printed electrode for one-step sensing with an internal standard. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[129]  Peter A. Kwaku Kyem,et al.  Transforming Recent Gains in the Digital Divide into Digital Opportunities: Africa and the Boom in Mobile Phone Subscription , 2006, Electron. J. Inf. Syst. Dev. Ctries..

[130]  Federico Girosi,et al.  Developing and interpreting models to improve diagnostics in developing countries , 2006, Nature.

[131]  Emanuel Carrilho,et al.  Paper microzone plates. , 2009, Analytical chemistry.

[132]  R. Hawkes,et al.  A dot-immunobinding assay for monoclonal and other antibodies. , 1982, Analytical biochemistry.

[133]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Use of multiple colorimetric indicators for paper-based microfluidic devices. , 2010, Analytica chimica acta.

[134]  Xu Li,et al.  Patterned paper and alternative materials as substrates for low-cost microfluidic diagnostics , 2012 .

[135]  D A Goldberg,et al.  Isolation and partial characterization of the Drosophila alcohol dehydrogenase gene. , 1980, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[136]  Elain Fu,et al.  Two-dimensional paper networks: programmable fluidic disconnects for multi-step processes in shaped paper. , 2011, Lab on a chip.

[137]  Xi Chen,et al.  DNA circuits as amplifiers for the detection of nucleic acids on a paperfluidic platform. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[138]  Michelle Khine,et al.  Unconventional Low-Cost Fabrication and Patterning Techniques for Point of Care Diagnostics , 2010, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[139]  J. Hussein,et al.  The Millennium Development Goals. , 2012 .

[140]  Kathryn H Ching,et al.  Lateral Flow Immunoassay. , 2015, Methods in molecular biology.

[141]  W. Dungchai,et al.  Sodium dodecyl sulfate-modified electrochemical paper-based analytical device for determination of dopamine levels in biological samples. , 2012, Analytica chimica acta.

[142]  Babak Ziaie,et al.  Laser-treated hydrophobic paper: an inexpensive microfluidic platform. , 2011, Lab on a chip.

[143]  Ling Zang,et al.  Paper-based vapor detection of hydrogen peroxide: colorimetric sensing with tunable interface. , 2011, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[144]  Nathan Blow,et al.  Microfluidics: the great divide , 2009, Nature Methods.

[145]  Frederick Chi-Ching Leung,et al.  Intraspecies diversity of SARS-like coronaviruses in Rhinolophus sinicus and its implications for the origin of SARS coronaviruses in humans. , 2010, The Journal of general virology.

[146]  J. L. Delaney,et al.  Electrogenerated chemiluminescence detection in paper-based microfluidic sensors. , 2011, Analytical chemistry.

[147]  Scott T. Phillips,et al.  "Fluidic batteries" as low-cost sources of power in paper-based microfluidic devices. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[148]  Emanuel Carrilho,et al.  An electrochemical gas sensor based on paper supported room temperature ionic liquids. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[149]  Peter Oefner,et al.  BIOANALYSIS , 2008, Electrophoresis.

[150]  Shenguang Ge,et al.  Supplementary Material (esi) for Chemical Communications Electronic Supplementary Information a Disposable Paper-based Electrochemical Sensor with Addressable Electrode Array for Cancer Screening , 2022 .

[151]  D. Citterio,et al.  Inkjet-printed microfluidic multianalyte chemical sensing paper. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[152]  K. Mayer,et al.  Report on the World Social Situation. , 1958 .

[153]  G. Taylor.  Dispersion of soluble matter in solvent flowing slowly through a tube , 1953, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[154]  Charles S Henry,et al.  Development of a paper-based analytical device for colorimetric detection of select foodborne pathogens. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[155]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Low-cost printing of poly(dimethylsiloxane) barriers to define microchannels in paper. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[156]  Eberhard Bodenschatz,et al.  Rapid switching of chemical signals in microfluidic devices. , 2009, Lab on a chip.

[157]  Zhihong Nie,et al.  Programmable diagnostic devices made from paper and tape. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[158]  John Eldridge.  Jane's Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Defence , 2005 .

[159]  Ali Khademhosseini,et al.  Nano/Microfluidics for diagnosis of infectious diseases in developing countries. , 2010, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[160]  P. Yager,et al.  Controlled reagent transport in disposable 2D paper networks. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[161]  Bernhard Weigl,et al.  Towards non- and minimally instrumented, microfluidics-based diagnostic devices. , 2008, Lab on a chip.

[162]  Paul Yager,et al.  Chemical signal amplification in two-dimensional paper networks. , 2010, Sensors and actuators. B, Chemical.

[163]  George M Whitesides,et al.  Integration of paper-based microfluidic devices with commercial electrochemical readers. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[164]  Shenguang Ge,et al.  Paper-based electrochemiluminescent 3D immunodevice for lab-on-paper, specific, and sensitive point-of-care testing. , 2012, Chemistry.

[165]  Je-Kyun Park,et al.  A simple and smart telemedicine device for developing regions: a pocket-sized colorimetric reader. , 2011, Lab on a chip.

[166]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Electrochemical detection for paper-based microfluidics. , 2009, Analytical chemistry.

[167]  Donald C. Cooper,et al.  Mobile Image Ratiometry: A New Method for Instantaneous Analysis of Rapid Test Strips , 2012 .

[168]  Shenguang Ge,et al.  Paper-based chemiluminescence ELISA: lab-on-paper based on chitosan modified paper device and wax-screen-printing. , 2012, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[169]  George M Whitesides,et al.  FLASH: a rapid method for prototyping paper-based microfluidic devices. , 2008, Lab on a chip.

[170]  Xu Li,et al.  A perspective on paper-based microfluidics: Current status and future trends. , 2012, Biomicrofluidics.

[171]  Chang Lu,et al.  Quantum dot (QD)-modified carbon tape electrodes for reproducible electrochemiluminescence (ECL) emission on a paper-based platform. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[172]  Barry Burciul,et al.  Strengthening health human resources and improving clinical outcomes through an integrated guideline and educational outreach in resource-poor settings: a cluster-randomized trial , 2010, Trials.

[173]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Measuring markers of liver function using a micropatterned paper device designed for blood from a fingerstick. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[174]  Yan Zha,et al.  Fabrication of paper-based microfluidic device using printed circuit technology , 2012 .

[175]  Jinghua Yu,et al.  Battery-triggered microfluidic paper-based multiplex electrochemiluminescence immunodevice based on potential-resolution strategy. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[176]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[177]  S. T. Phillips,et al.  Metering the capillary-driven flow of fluids in paper-based microfluidic devices. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[178]  Richard M Crooks,et al.  Paper-based electrochemical sensing platform with integral battery and electrochromic read-out. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[179]  Kristen L. Helton,et al.  Microfluidic Overview of Global Health Issues Microfluidic Diagnostic Technologies for Global Public Health , 2006 .

[180]  Eko Supriyanto,et al.  Flexible microfluidic cloth-based analytical devices using a low-cost wax patterning technique. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[181]  John D Brennan,et al.  Reagentless bidirectional lateral flow bioactive paper sensors for detection of pesticides in beverage and food samples. , 2009, Analytical chemistry.

[182]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Microfluidic paper-based analytical device for aerosol oxidative activity. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[183]  Jack L. Johnson.  Microchemical techniques in solving industrial problems , 1967 .

[184]  A. Gobbi,et al.  Electrochemical detection in a paper-based separation device. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[185]  Wai Ho Li,et al.  Uniform mixing in paper-based microfluidic systems using surface acoustic waves. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[186]  Peter Kauffman,et al.  Microfluidics without pumps: reinventing the T-sensor and H-filter in paper networks. , 2010, Lab on a chip.

[187]  René Chambon,et al.  Dynamics of porous saturated media, checking of the generalized law of Darcy , 1985 .

[188]  Lauro T. Kubota,et al.  Separation and electrochemical detection of paracetamol and 4-aminophenol in a paper-based microfluidic device. , 2012, Analytica chimica acta.

[189]  I. Robertson,et al.  The role of companion animals in the emergence of parasitic zoonoses. , 2000, International journal for parasitology.

[190]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Thread as a matrix for biomedical assays. , 2010, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[191]  Lianming Zhang,et al.  Low-cost fabrication of paper-based microfluidic devices by one-step plotting. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.

[192]  C. Plotz,et al.  The latex fixation test. I. Application to the serologic diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. , 1956, The American journal of medicine.

[193]  Scott T Phillips,et al.  A thermally-stable enzyme detection assay that amplifies signal autonomously in water without assistance from biological reagents. , 2013, Chemical communications.

[194]  Paul Yager,et al.  Transport in two-dimensional paper networks , 2011, Microfluidics and nanofluidics.

[195]  Barney Lane and Susan Sweet and David Lewin and Josie Sep Petini.  The Economic and Social Benefits of Mobile Services in Bangladesh , 2006 .

[196]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Patterned paper as a platform for inexpensive, low-volume, portable bioassays. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[197]  Sylvia Daunert,et al.  Paper strip whole cell biosensors: a portable test for the semiquantitative detection of bacterial quorum signaling molecules. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[198]  J. Hassink,et al.  Farming for health : green-care farming across Europe and the United States of America , 2006 .

[199]  D. Washington.  FORM 10-K , 2005 .

[200]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Simple telemedicine for developing regions: camera phones and paper-based microfluidic devices for real-time, off-site diagnosis. , 2008, Analytical chemistry.

[201]  George M Whitesides,et al.  Cool, or simple and cheap? Why not both? , 2013, Lab on a chip.

[202]  J. Olkkonen,et al.  Flexographically printed fluidic structures in paper. , 2010, Analytical chemistry.

[203]  G. Whitesides,et al.  Three-dimensional microfluidic devices fabricated in layered paper and tape , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[204]  Xuena Zhu,et al.  Paper based point-of-care testing disc for multiplex whole cell bacteria analysis. , 2011, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[205]  Erica Sharpe,et al.  Paper bioassay based on ceria nanoparticles as colorimetric probes. , 2011, Analytical chemistry.

[206]  F. Rius,et al.  Paper-based ion-selective potentiometric sensors. , 2012, Analytical chemistry.