Physical activity and mental health: the association between exercise and mood.

Physical activity is an important public health tool used in the treatment and prevention of various physical diseases, as well as in the treatment of some psychiatric diseases such as depressive and anxiety disorders. However, studies have shown that in addition to its beneficial effects, physical activity can also be associated with impaired mental health, being related to disturbances like "excessive exercise" and "overtraining syndrome". Although the number of reports of the effects of physical activity on mental health is steadily increasing, these studies have not yet identified the mechanisms involved in the benefits and dangers to mental health associated with exercise. This article reviews the information available regarding the relationship between physical activity and mental health, specifically addressing the association between exercise and mood.

[1]  R. Strauss,et al.  Psychological moods and subjectively perceived behavioral and somatic changes accompanying anabolic-androgenic steroid use , 1992, The American journal of sports medicine.

[2]  S L Hooper,et al.  Hormonal responses of elite swimmers to overtraining. , 1993, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[3]  D. Katz,et al.  Psychiatric and medical effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid use. A controlled study of 160 athletes. , 1994, Archives of general psychiatry.

[4]  W. Morgan,et al.  Effects of exercise and rest on the state anxiety and blood pressure of physically challenged college students. , 1993, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness.

[5]  Steven J. Petruzzello,et al.  A Meta-Analysis on the Anxiety-Reducing Effects of Acute and Chronic Exercise , 1991, Sports medicine.

[6]  W. Morgan,et al.  Influence of exercise and quiet rest on state anxiety and blood pressure. , 1987, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[7]  Andrew M. Jones,et al.  The Effect of Endurance Training on Parameters of Aerobic Fitness , 2000, Sports medicine.

[8]  J. Blumenthal,et al.  Exercise and the Treatment of Clinical Depression in Adults , 2002, Sports medicine.

[9]  J. Grove,et al.  Relationship of Swimming Distance, Expectancy, and Performance to Mood States of Competitive Athletes , 1997, Perceptual and motor skills.

[10]  J. Raglin,et al.  Mood, neuromuscular function, and performance during training in female swimmers. , 1996, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[11]  T. Noakes,et al.  The 'worn-out athlete': a clinical approach to chronic fatigue in athletes. , 1997, Journal of sports sciences.

[12]  B R Londeree,et al.  Effect of training on lactate/ventilatory thresholds: a meta-analysis. , 1997, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[13]  A. Yates,et al.  Running--an analogue of anorexia? , 1983, The New England journal of medicine.

[14]  J. Raglin,et al.  Exercise and mental health : beneficial and detrimental effects , 1991 .

[15]  A S Leon,et al.  Leisure-time physical activity levels and risk of coronary heart disease and death. The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. , 1987, JAMA.

[16]  R. Cohen,et al.  Physical activity and depression: evidence from the Alameda County Study. , 1991, American journal of epidemiology.

[17]  R. Paffenbarger,et al.  Physical activity and personal characteristics associated with depression and suicide in American college men , 1994, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum.

[18]  William P. Morgan,et al.  Exercise and mental health , 1987 .

[19]  P R Cavanagh,et al.  Six weeks of training does not change running mechanics or improve running economy. , 1996, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[20]  A. Viru,et al.  Opioid Receptor Blockade Eliminates Mood Effects of Aerobic Gymnastics , 2002, International journal of sports medicine.

[21]  Gerald S. Zavorsky,et al.  Evidence and Possible Mechanisms of Altered Maximum Heart Rate With Endurance Training and Tapering , 2000, Sports medicine.

[22]  W C Willett,et al.  A prospective study of exercise and incidence of diabetes among US male physicians. , 1992, JAMA.

[23]  American College of Sports Medicine. Position Stand. Physical activity, physical fitness, and hypertension. , 1993, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[24]  R. Paffenbarger,et al.  Physical activity, all-cause mortality, and longevity of college alumni. , 1986, The New England journal of medicine.

[25]  P. O’Connor,et al.  Personality structure, mood states, and performance in elite male distance runners. , 1988 .

[26]  S L Hooper,et al.  Hormonal, immunological, and hematological responses to intensified training in elite swimmers. , 1997, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[27]  D. MacDougall.  Anabolic Steroids. , 1983, The Physician and sportsmedicine.

[28]  W. Kindermann,et al.  Ergometric and Psychological Findings During Overtraining: A Long-Term Follow-Up Study in Endurance Athletes , 1998, International journal of sports medicine.

[29]  D. Carroll,et al.  The pathological status of exercise dependence , 2000, British journal of sports medicine.

[30]  Wilfried Kindermann,et al.  Diagnosis of Overtraining , 2002, Sports medicine.

[31]  J. Lönnqvist,et al.  Randomized trial of the efficacy of bright-light exposure and aerobic exercise on depressive symptoms and serum lipids. , 2002, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[32]  Basson,et al.  Personality style and mood states associated with a negative addiction to running , 1997 .

[33]  H. Kuipers,et al.  Overtraining following intensified training with normal muscle glycogen. , 1995, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[34]  H. Sexton,et al.  How are mood and exercise related? Results from the Finnmark study , 2001, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[35]  H. Pope,et al.  Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: a case-control study. , 2000, The American journal of psychiatry.

[36]  E. Eichner.  Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Searching for the Cause and Treatment. , 1989, The Physician and sportsmedicine.

[37]  R. Marcus,et al.  Osteoporosis and exercise in women. , 1992, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[38]  E. Martinsen,et al.  Comparing aerobic with nonaerobic forms of exercise in the treatment of clinical depression: a randomized trial. , 1989, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[39]  P. A. Dewsnap,et al.  Exercise dependence. , 1988, British journal of addiction.

[40]  P. Sparling,et al.  Psychological Characterization of the Elite Female Distance Runner* , 1987, International journal of sports medicine.

[41]  C. Foster,et al.  Monitoring training in athletes with reference to overtraining syndrome. , 1998, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[42]  S. Biddle.  Exercise and psychosocial health. , 1995, Research quarterly for exercise and sport.

[43]  J. Spence,et al.  Feeling state responses to acute exercise of high and low intensity. , 2001, Journal of science and medicine in sport.

[44]  E. Barrett-Connor,et al.  Cross-sectional and prospective study of exercise and depressed mood in the elderly : the Rancho Bernardo study. , 2001, American journal of epidemiology.

[45]  T. Schwenk,et al.  Using Exercise to Ward Off Depression. , 1995, The Physician and sportsmedicine.

[46]  Thomas L. Schwenk,et al.  Physical Activity and Mental Health , 2000, Sports medicine.

[47]  J. Morris,et al.  Exercise in leisure time: coronary attack and death rates. , 1990, British heart journal.

[48]  A. Mallinson,et al.  Community-based exercise program reduces risk factors for falls in 65- to 75-year-old women with osteoporosis: randomized controlled trial. , 2002, CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne.

[49]  D L Katz,et al.  Anorexia nervosa and "reverse anorexia" among 108 male bodybuilders. , 1993, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[50]  Laura Helena Andrade,et al.  Alteracoes psiquiatricas associadas ao uso de anabolizantes , 2000 .

[51]  C. Davis,et al.  Excessive exercise and weight preoccupation in women. , 1993, Addictive behaviors.

[52]  A L Dannenberg,et al.  Physical activity and depressive symptoms: the NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. , 1988, American journal of epidemiology.

[53]  H. Engels,et al.  Bench/step training with and without extremity loading. Effects on muscular fitness, body composition profile, and psychological affect. , 2002, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness.

[54]  S. Abbey,et al.  Effect of a randomized, controlled trial of exercise on mood and physical function in individuals with fibromyalgia. , 2001, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[55]  P Salmon,et al.  Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress: a unifying theory. , 2001, Clinical psychology review.

[56]  E. Newsholme,et al.  Redefining the overtraining syndrome as the unexplained underperformance syndrome , 2000, British journal of sports medicine.

[57]  P. Thorén,et al.  Endorphins and exercise: physiological mechanisms and clinical implications. , 1990, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[58]  Z. Tran,et al.  Effect of Exercise on Depression , 1990, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[59]  N. Lynch,et al.  Psychological responses to brief exhaustive cycling exercise in the morning and the evening. , 1998, International journal of sport psychology.

[60]  R. Paffenbarger,et al.  Physical activity and reduced occurrence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[61]  K. W. Kallus,et al.  Training of junior rowers before world championships. Effects on performance, mood state and selected hormonal and metabolic responses. , 2000, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness.

[62]  H. Kuipers,et al.  Training and overtraining: an introduction. , 1998, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[63]  R J Shephard,et al.  Potential markers of heavy training in highly trained distance runners. , 1992, British journal of sports medicine.

[64]  H G Pope,et al.  Muscle dysmorphia. An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. , 1997, Psychosomatics.

[65]  A. Drewnowski,et al.  Effects of body image on dieting, exercise, and anabolic steroid use in adolescent males. , 1995, The International journal of eating disorders.

[66]  W. Yates,et al.  Psychiatric Symptoms Associated with Anabolic Steroids: A Controlled, Retrospective Study , 1990 .

[67]  Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Mood of Adult Women , 1993, Perceptual and motor skills.

[68]  M. Spieker.  Exercise Dependence in a Pregnant Runner , 1996, The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine.

[69]  G. Cazorla,et al.  Biochemical Aspects of Overtraining in Endurance Sports , 2003, Sports medicine.

[70]  P. Salmon,et al.  Effects of temporary withdrawal from regular running. , 1990, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[71]  M. Trivedi,et al.  Physical activity dose-response effects on outcomes of depression and anxiety. , 2001, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[72]  K. Patrick,et al.  Physical Activity and Public Health: A Recommendation From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine , 1995 .

[73]  P. Laursen,et al.  Factors Affecting Performance in an Ultraendurance Triathlon , 2001, Sports medicine.

[74]  D. Katz,et al.  Affective and psychotic symptoms associated with anabolic steroid use. , 1988, The American journal of psychiatry.

[75]  T. Dunnagan,et al.  Alteration of Mood State after a Single Bout of Noncompetitive and Competitive Exercise Programs , 2001, Perceptual and motor skills.

[76]  W P Morgan,et al.  Psychological monitoring of overtraining and staleness. , 1987, British journal of sports medicine.

[77]  W P Morgan,et al.  Psychobiologic effects of 3 d of increased training in female and male swimmers. , 1991, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[78]  W. Morgan,et al.  Exercise and self-esteem: rationale and model. , 1989, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[79]  D Williamson,et al.  Mood Change through Physical Exercise in Nine- to Ten-Year-Old Children , 2001, Perceptual and motor skills.

[80]  E. Kouri,et al.  Anabolic-androgenic steroid use among 133 prisoners. , 1996, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[81]  J Daniels,et al.  Interval Training and Performance , 1984, Sports medicine.

[82]  S. Biddle,et al.  Aspects of psychology in sports medicine. , 1991, British journal of sports medicine.

[83]  E. Martinsen.  Physical activity and depression: clinical experience , 1994, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum.

[84]  Ø. Solberg,et al.  Aerobic and non-aerobic forms of exercise in the treatment of anxiety disorders , 1989 .

[85]  W P Morgan,et al.  Changes in mood states during training in female and male college swimmers. , 1991, International journal of sports medicine.

[86]  J. Blumenthal,et al.  Is Running an Analogue of Anorexia Nervosa? An Empirical Study of Obligatory Running and Anorexia Nervosa , 1985 .

[87]  G. Goldfield,et al.  Body image and steroid use in male bodybuilders. , 1995, The International journal of eating disorders.

[88]  B. Focht,et al.  Influence of resistance exercise of different intensities on state anxiety and blood pressure. , 1999, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[89]  N. Bachl,et al.  Decreased Nocturnal Catecholamine Excretion: Parameter for an Overtraining Syndrome in Athletes?* , 1992, International journal of sports medicine.

[90]  F. Dimeo,et al.  Benefits from aerobic exercise in patients with major depression: a pilot study , 2001, British journal of sports medicine.

[91]  Acsm Position Stand..  ACSM Position Stand. The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexibility in healthy adults , 1998 .

[92]  S. Blair,et al.  Physical fitness and incidence of hypertension in healthy normotensive men and women. , 1984, JAMA.

[93]  H. Saner,et al.  Effects of exercise training program on functional capacity and quality of life in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Evaluation of a pilot project. , 2002, VASA. Zeitschrift fur Gefasskrankheiten.

[94]  William P. Morgan,et al.  Mood state and salivary cortisol levels following overtraining in female swimmers , 1989, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[95]  R. Faulkner,et al.  Prevention and management of osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society of Canada. 5. Physical activity as therapy for osteoporosis. , 1996, CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne.

[96]  W. Taylor.  Hormonal Manipulation: A New Era of Monstrous Athletes , 1985 .

[97]  J. Raglin,et al.  Exercise and Mental Health , 1990 .

[98]  J. Manson,et al.  Physical activity and incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women , 1991, The Lancet.

[99]  W P Morgan,et al.  Development of a scale for use in monitoring training-induced distress in athletes. , 1994, International journal of sports medicine.

[100]  R. Shephard,et al.  Absolute versus relative intensity of physical activity in a dose-response context. , 2001, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[101]  C. Ransford.  A role for amines in the antidepressant effect of exercise: a review. , 1982, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[102]  J Mester,et al.  Training and overtraining markers in selected sport events. , 2000, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[103]  A. Dunn,et al.  Exercise and the neurobiology of depression. , 1991, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[104]  L. Mackinnon,et al.  Overtraining effects on immunity and performance in athletes , 2000, Immunology and cell biology.

[105]  C. Lee,et al.  Mood and symptom reporting among middle-aged women: the relationship between menopausal status, hormone replacement therapy, and exercise participation. , 1997, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[106]  J. Dua,et al.  Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Negative Affect, Positive Affect, Stress, and Depression , 1992, Perceptual and motor skills.

[107]  R. West,et al.  Effect of a short bout of exercise on tobacco withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke , 2001, Psychopharmacology.

[108]  W P Morgan,et al.  Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity. , 1985, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[109]  W P Morgan,et al.  Mood disturbance following increased training in swimmers. , 1988, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[110]  L. Armstrong,et al.  The Unknown Mechanism of the Overtraining Syndrome , 2002, Sports medicine.

[111]  R S Paffenbarger,et al.  Physical activity and incidence of hypertension in college alumni. , 1983, American journal of epidemiology.

[112]  R. Budgett.  Overtraining syndrome. , 1990, British journal of sports medicine.

[113]  R. Yeung,et al.  The acute effects of exercise on mood state. , 1996, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[114]  Biopsychological, affective and cognitive responses to acute physical activity. , 2001, The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness.

[115]  J. Coast,et al.  Exercise duration and mood state: how much is enough to feel better? , 2001, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[116]  Paul B. Laursen,et al.  The Scientific Basis for High-Intensity Interval Training , 2002, Sports medicine.

[117]  B. Berglund,et al.  Psychological monitoring and modulation of training load of world-class canoeists. , 1994, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.