Disease Manifestations and Pathogenic Mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus

SUMMARY Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.

[1]  M. Wessels,et al.  Cytotoxic Effects of Streptolysin O and Streptolysin S Enhance the Virulence of Poorly Encapsulated Group A Streptococci , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[2]  L. Björck,et al.  Streptococcal Cysteine Proteinase Releases Biologically Active Fragments of Streptococcal Surface Proteins (*) , 1995, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[3]  Z. Eichenbaum,et al.  Shr Is a Broad-Spectrum Surface Receptor That Contributes to Adherence and Virulence in Group A Streptococcus , 2008, Infection and Immunity.

[4]  R. Coskey,et al.  Diagnosis and treatment of impetigo. , 1987, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[5]  K. Berggård,et al.  Evasion of Phagocytosis through Cooperation between Two Ligand-binding Regions in Streptococcus pyogenes M Protein , 2003, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[6]  E. N. Fox,et al.  Protective study with a group A streptococcal M protein vaccine. Infectivity challenge of human volunteers. , 1973, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[7]  Clayton C. Caswell,et al.  Scl1‐dependent internalization of group A Streptococcus via direct interactions with the α2β1 integrin enhances pathogen survival and re‐emergence , 2007, Molecular microbiology.

[8]  R. Kennedy,et al.  Regulation of capsule gene expression by group A Streptococcus during pharyngeal colonization and invasive infection , 2001, Molecular microbiology.

[9]  A. Schmidtchen,et al.  Interactions between M proteins of Streptococcus pyogenes and glycosaminoglycans promote bacterial adhesion to host cells. , 2003, European journal of biochemistry.

[10]  D. Bessen,et al.  Tissue tropisms in group A streptococcal infections. , 2010, Future microbiology.

[11]  M. York,et al.  Characterization of Antimicrobial Resistance inStreptococcus pyogenes Isolates from the San Francisco Bay Area of Northern California , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[12]  M. Yamaguchi,et al.  Pleiotropic virulence factor – Streptococcus pyogenes fibronectin‐binding proteins , 2013, Cellular microbiology.

[13]  V. Nizet,et al.  Parameters Governing Invasive Disease Propensity of Non-M1 Serotype Group A Streptococci , 2010, Journal of Innate Immunity.

[14]  S. Hammerschmidt,et al.  Cytosolic Proteins Contribute to Surface Plasminogen Recruitment of Neisseria meningitidis , 2007, Journal of bacteriology.

[15]  K. Rosendal Investigations of penicillin-resistant streptococci belonging to group A. , 2009, Acta pathologica et microbiologica Scandinavica.

[16]  E. Giovanetti,et al.  ICESp2905, the erm(TR)-tet(O) Element of Streptococcus pyogenes, Is Formed by Two Independent Integrative and Conjugative Elements , 2011, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[17]  K. S. Sriprakash,et al.  Characterization of a Complement-Binding Protein, DRS, from Strains of Streptococcus pyogenes Containing the emm12 and emm55 Genes , 2004, Infection and Immunity.

[18]  Tracy L. Dalton,et al.  Analysis of the role of CovR and CovS in the dissemination of Streptococcus pyogenes in invasive skin disease. , 2006, Microbial pathogenesis.

[19]  V. Nizet,et al.  Inactivation of DltA Modulates Virulence Factor Expression in Streptococcus pyogenes , 2009, PloS one.

[20]  I. Ginsburg Is streptolysin S of group A streptococci a virulence factor? , 1999, APMIS : acta pathologica, microbiologica, et immunologica Scandinavica.

[21]  L. Rozek,et al.  Plasminogen Is a Critical Host Pathogenicity Factor for Group A Streptococcal Infection , 2004, Science.

[22]  G. Lindahl,et al.  The R28 protein of Streptococcus pyogenes is related to several group B streptococcal surface proteins, confers protective immunity and promotes binding to human epithelial cells , 1999, Molecular microbiology.

[23]  E. Hanski,et al.  Protein F2, a novel fibronectin‐binding protein from Streptococcus pyogenes, possesses two binding domains , 1996, Molecular Microbiology.

[24]  M. Davies,et al.  Protection against group A streptococcus by immunization with J8-diphtheria toxoid: contribution of J8- and diphtheria toxoid-specific antibodies to protection. , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[25]  F. Baquero,et al.  Antimicrobial Susceptibilities of 1,684 Streptococcus pneumoniae and 2,039 Streptococcus pyogenesIsolates and Their Ecological Relationships: Results of a 1-Year (1998–1999) Multicenter Surveillance Study in Spain , 2001, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[26]  C. Gillen,et al.  Group a streptococcal vaccine candidates: potential for the development of a human vaccine. , 2013, Current topics in microbiology and immunology.

[27]  A. Bisno Nonsuppurative Poststreptococcal Sequelae , 2010 .

[28]  Bruce A. Roe,et al.  Genome Sequence of a Nephritogenic and Highly Transformable M49 Strain of Streptococcus pyogenes , 2008, Journal of bacteriology.

[29]  A. Efstratiou,et al.  The serotypes of Streptococcus pyogenes present in Britain during 1980-1990 and their association with disease. , 1993, Journal of medical microbiology.

[30]  J. Picazo,et al.  Distribution of tetracycline resistance genes tet(M), tet(O), tet(L) and tet(K) in blood isolates of viridans group streptococci harbouring erm(B) and mef(A) genes. Susceptibility to quinupristin/dalfopristin and linezolid. , 2003, International journal of antimicrobial agents.

[31]  G. Lindahl,et al.  Cross-protection between group A and group B streptococci due to cross-reacting surface proteins. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[32]  Yen-Hsu Chen,et al.  Group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis in the emergency department. , 2013, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[33]  C. J. Wright,et al.  The AgI/II Family Adhesin AspA Is Required for Respiratory Infection by Streptococcus pyogenes , 2013, PloS one.

[34]  E. Kaplan,et al.  The pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) etiology for tics and obsessive-compulsive symptoms: hypothesis or entity? Practical considerations for the clinician. , 2004, Pediatrics.

[35]  S. Swedo,et al.  Streptococcal mimicry and antibody-mediated cell signaling in the pathogenesis of Sydenham's chorea , 2006, Autoimmunity.

[36]  I. Gambhir,et al.  Acute rheumatic fever. , 2002, The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India.

[37]  L. Van Melderen,et al.  Updated model of group A Streptococcus M proteins based on a comprehensive worldwide study. , 2013, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[38]  D. Earle,et al.  Twelve to seventeen-year follow-up of patients with poststreptococcal acute glomerulonephritis in Trinidad. , 1982, The New England journal of medicine.

[39]  H. Courtney,et al.  Conversion of M serotype 24 of Streptococcus pyogenes to M serotypes 5 and 18: effect on resistance to phagocytosis and adhesion to host cells , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[40]  R. Tanz,et al.  New approaches to the treatment of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. , 2001, Current opinion in pediatrics.

[41]  T. Farley,et al.  [Streptococcal pharyngitis]. , 1979, South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde.

[42]  M. Stinson,et al.  M protein mediates streptococcal adhesion to HEp-2 cells , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[43]  D. Aronoff,et al.  Blunt trauma as a risk factor for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis. , 2007, Annals of epidemiology.

[44]  S. Olmsted,et al.  Immunization with C5a peptidase from either group A or B streptococci enhances clearance of group A streptococci from intranasally infected mice. , 2004, Vaccine.

[45]  E. Baker,et al.  Crystal Structure of Spy0129, a Streptococcus pyogenes Class B Sortase Involved in Pilus Assembly , 2011, PloS one.

[46]  M. Federle,et al.  A Response Regulator That Represses Transcription of Several Virulence Operons in the Group A Streptococcus , 1999, Journal of bacteriology.

[47]  S. A. Palácios,et al.  CXCL9/Mig Mediates T cells Recruitment to Valvular Tissue Lesions of Chronic Rheumatic Heart Disease Patients , 2013, Inflammation.

[48]  M. Gerber Antibiotic resistance: relationship to persistence of group A streptococci in the upper respiratory tract. , 1996, Pediatrics.

[49]  E. Beachey,et al.  Bacterial adherence of group A streptococci to mucosal surfaces. , 1989, Respiration; international review of thoracic diseases.

[50]  T. Parks,et al.  Streptococcal skin infection and rheumatic heart disease , 2012, Current opinion in infectious diseases.

[51]  J. McArthur,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes prtFII, but not sfbI, sfbII or fbp54, is represented more frequently among invasive-disease isolates of tropical Australia , 2002, Epidemiology and Infection.

[52]  R. Kaul,et al.  Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome--a comparative observational study. The Canadian Streptococcal Study Group. , 1999, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[53]  S. Sriskandan,et al.  Kallikrein-kinin system activation in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. , 2000, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[54]  V. Nizet,et al.  Streptolysin O Promotes Group A Streptococcus Immune Evasion by Accelerated Macrophage Apoptosis* , 2009, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[55]  J. Todd,et al.  Improved outcome of clindamycin compared with beta-lactam antibiotic treatment for invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infection. , 1999, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[56]  J. Mathews,et al.  Proteinuria is associated with persistence of antibody to streptococcal M protein in Aboriginal Australians , 1999, Epidemiology and Infection.

[57]  T. Renné,et al.  Absorption of kininogen from human plasma by Streptococcus pyogenes is followed by the release of bradykinin. , 1997, The Biochemical journal.

[58]  J. McArthur,et al.  Is plasminogen deployed as a Streptococcus pyogenes virulence factor? , 2005, Trends in microbiology.

[59]  K. Acharya,et al.  Structural features of a zinc binding site in the superantigen strepococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA1): Implications for MHC class II recognition , 2001, Protein science : a publication of the Protein Society.

[60]  V. Nizet,et al.  EndoS2 is a unique and conserved enzyme of serotype M49 group A Streptococcus that hydrolyses N-linked glycans on IgG and α1-acid glycoprotein , 2013, The Biochemical journal.

[61]  A. Wistedt,et al.  Streptokinase activates plasminogen bound to human group C and G streptococci through M-like proteins. , 1994, European journal of biochemistry.

[62]  G. Tempera,et al.  Nationwide survey in Italy of treatment of Streptococcus pyogenes pharyngitis in children: influence of macrolide resistance on clinical and microbiological outcomes. Artemis-Italy Study Group. , 1999, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[63]  T. Masuyama,et al.  Outbreak of acute glomerulonephritis in children: Observed association with the T1 subtype of group A streptococcal infection in Northern Kyushu, Japan , 1996, Acta paediatrica Japonica : Overseas edition.

[64]  C. von Hunolstein,et al.  Lipoteichoic acid and M protein: dual adhesins of group A streptococci. , 1992, Microbial pathogenesis.

[65]  H. Vohra,et al.  Group A Streptococcus virulence factors genes in north India & their association with emm type in pharyngitis , 2011, The Indian journal of medical research.

[66]  M. Batzloff,et al.  Comparative in silico analysis of two vaccine candidates for group A streptococcus predicts that they both may have similar safety profiles. , 2007, Vaccine.

[67]  S. Shulman,et al.  Treatment of acute streptococcal pharyngitis and prevention of rheumatic fever: a statement for health professionals. Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the American Heart Association. , 1995, Pediatrics.

[68]  S. Hamada,et al.  Novel Laminin-Binding Protein of Streptococcus pyogenes, Lbp, Is Involved in Adhesion to Epithelial Cells , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[69]  A. McAdam,et al.  Detection of Multiple Macrolide- and Lincosamide-Resistant Strains of Streptococcus pyogenes from Patients in the Boston Area , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[70]  J. Musser,et al.  The current state of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. , 2008, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN.

[71]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Prospective Surveillance of Invasive Group A Streptococcal Disease, Fiji, 2005–2007 , 2009, Emerging infectious diseases.

[72]  M. Markowitz,et al.  The fall and rise of rheumatic fever in the United States: a commentary. , 1988, International journal of cardiology.

[73]  S. Sriskandan,et al.  The contribution of group A streptococcal virulence determinants to the pathogenesis of sepsis , 2013, Virulence.

[74]  S. Hamada,et al.  Systemic immunization with streptococcal immunoglobulin-binding protein Sib 35 induces protective immunity against group: a Streptococcus challenge in mice. , 2005, Vaccine.

[75]  M. Höök,et al.  MSCRAMM-mediated adherence of microorganisms to host tissues. , 1994, Annual review of microbiology.

[76]  V. Fischetti,et al.  A major surface protein on group A streptococci is a glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate-dehydrogenase with multiple binding activity , 1992, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[77]  A. Ralph,et al.  Group a streptococcal diseases and their global burden. , 2013, Current topics in microbiology and immunology.

[78]  D E Low,et al.  Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada. Ontario Group A Streptococcal Study Group. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[79]  M. Hufnagel,et al.  Significant decline in the erythromycin resistance of group A streptococcus isolates at a German paediatric tertiary care centre , 2011, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases.

[80]  M. Yacoub,et al.  Revisiting the pathogenesis of rheumatic fever and carditis , 2013, Nature Reviews Cardiology.

[81]  R. Vuento,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes bacteraemia, emm types and superantigen profiles , 2012, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases.

[82]  H. Goossens,et al.  Increase in fluoroquinolone non-susceptibility among clinical Streptococcus pyogenes in Belgium during 2007-10. , 2012, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[83]  A. Podbielski,et al.  The SpeB virulence factor of Streptococcus pyogenes, a multifunctional secreted and cell surface molecule with strepadhesin, laminin‐binding and cysteine protease activity , 2001, Molecular microbiology.

[84]  A. Tomasz,et al.  Penicillin-resistant and penicillin-tolerant mutants of group A Streptococci , 1982, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[85]  R. Olsen,et al.  Full-genome dissection of an epidemic of severe invasive disease caused by a hypervirulent, recently emerged clone of group A Streptococcus. , 2012, The American journal of pathology.

[86]  M. Wessels,et al.  Relative contributions of hyaluronic acid capsule and M protein to virulence in a mucoid strain of the group A Streptococcus , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[87]  P. Yang,et al.  A probable food-borne outbreak of pharyngitis after a massive rainstorm in Beijing, caused by emm89 group A Streptococcus rarely found in China. , 2013, International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases.

[88]  S. Beatson,et al.  Analysis of a Streptococcus pyogenes Puerperal Sepsis Cluster by Use of Whole-Genome Sequencing , 2012, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[89]  N. Ruiz,et al.  Cytolysin-Mediated Translocation (CMT) A Functional Equivalent of Type III Secretion in Gram-Positive Bacteria , 2001, Cell.

[90]  Xiaorong Liu,et al.  High macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes strains isolated from children with pharyngitis in China , 2009, Pediatric pulmonology.

[91]  C. Broder,et al.  Cloning, sequence analysis, and expression in Escherichia coli of a streptococcal plasmin receptor , 1992, Journal of bacteriology.

[92]  A. Kalergis,et al.  M-protein gene-type distribution and hyaluronic acid capsule in group A Streptococcus clinical isolates in Chile: association of emm gene markers with csrR alleles , 2011, Epidemiology and Infection.

[93]  J. Carapetis,et al.  The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. , 2005, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[94]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Contrasting molecular epidemiology of group A streptococci causing tropical and nontropical infections of the skin and throat. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[95]  O. Shannon,et al.  Platelets promote bacterial dissemination in a mouse model of streptococcal sepsis. , 2013, Microbes and infection.

[96]  R. Tanz,et al.  Group A streptococcal pharyngitis and immune-mediated complications: from diagnosis to management , 2010, Expert review of anti-infective therapy.

[97]  A. Bisno,et al.  Guidelines for the diagnosis of rheumatic fever. Jones Criteria, 1992 update. Special Writing Group of the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young of the American Heart Association. , 1992, JAMA.

[98]  H. Herwald,et al.  M protein from Streptococcus pyogenes induces tissue factor expression and pro-coagulant activity in human monocytes , 2007, Microbiology.

[99]  M. Ho,et al.  Human and murine antibodies cross-reactive with streptococcal M protein and myosin recognize the sequence GLN-LYS-SER-LYS-GLN in M protein. , 1989, Journal of immunology.

[100]  B. Henriques-Normark,et al.  Epidemiology of Severe Streptococcus pyogenes Disease in Europe , 2008, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[101]  D. Rolo,et al.  Molecular characterization of macrolide- and multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from adult patients in Barcelona, Spain (1993-2008). , 2010, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[102]  A. Norrby-Teglund,et al.  Intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a European randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. , 2003, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[103]  J. Degen,et al.  Reduced thrombin generation increases host susceptibility to group A streptococcal infection. , 2009, Blood.

[104]  L. G. Veasy,et al.  Resurgence of acute rheumatic fever in the intermountain area of the United States. , 1987, The New England journal of medicine.

[105]  N. Ketheesan,et al.  Invasive group A streptococcal disease in North Queensland (1996 - 2001). , 2004, The Indian journal of medical research.

[106]  J. Zabriskie,et al.  Rheumatic fever and poststreptococcal reactive arthritis. , 1995, Current opinion in rheumatology.

[107]  K. Sunakawa,et al.  Distribution of emm type and antibiotic susceptibility of group A streptococci causing invasive and noninvasive disease. , 2008, Journal of medical microbiology.

[108]  Y. Sharma,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes pharyngitis & impetigo in a rural area of Panchkula district in Haryana, India , 2012, The Indian journal of medical research.

[109]  P. Lachmann,et al.  Streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC) inhibits the membrane attack complex by preventing uptake of C567 onto cell membranes , 2001, Immunology.

[110]  Fiona C McKay,et al.  Plasminogen Binding by Group A Streptococcal Isolates from a Region of Hyperendemicity for Streptococcal Skin Infection and a High Incidence of Invasive Infection , 2004, Infection and Immunity.

[111]  V. DiRita,et al.  A Two-Component Regulatory System, CsrR-CsrS, Represses Expression of Three Streptococcus pyogenesVirulence Factors, Hyaluronic Acid Capsule, Streptolysin S, and Pyrogenic Exotoxin B , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[112]  A. Bretscher,et al.  Insight into the molecular basis of pathogen abundance: Group A Streptococcus inhibitor of complement inhibits bacterial adherence and internalization into human cells , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[113]  J. Musser,et al.  Engagement of the Pathogen Survival Response Used by Group A Streptococcus to Avert Destruction by Innate Host Defense , 2004, The Journal of Immunology.

[114]  D. Stevens Invasive group A streptococcus infections. , 1992, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[115]  J. McArthur,et al.  Intranasal Vaccination with Streptococcal Fibronectin Binding Protein Sfb1 Fails To Prevent Growth and Dissemination of Streptococcus pyogenes in a Murine Skin Infection Model , 2004, Infection and Immunity.

[116]  B. Schwartz,et al.  The Reemergence of Severe Group A Streptococcal Disease: an Evolutionary Perspective , 1998 .

[117]  J. McCormick,et al.  Molecular Requirements for MHC Class II α-Chain Engagement and Allelic Discrimination by the Bacterial Superantigen Streptococcal Pyrogenic Exotoxin C1 , 2008, The Journal of Immunology.

[118]  B. Finlay,et al.  High‐frequency intracellular invasion of epithelial cells by serotype M1 group A streptococci: M1 protein‐mediated invasion and cytoskeletal rearrangements , 1999, Molecular microbiology.

[119]  Xiaorong Liu,et al.  Epidemiological and molecular characteristics of clinical isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes collected between 2005 and 2008 from Chinese children. , 2012, Journal of medical microbiology.

[120]  V. Fischetti,et al.  A novel plasminogen/plasmin binding protein on the surface of group A streptococci. , 1997, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[121]  E. Kaplan,et al.  Failure of once-daily penicillin V therapy for streptococcal pharyngitis. , 1989, American journal of diseases of children.

[122]  M. Mihatsch,et al.  Is the nephritogenic antigen in post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis pyrogenic exotoxin B (SPE B) or GAPDH? , 2005, Kidney international.

[123]  D. Stevens,et al.  M Type 1 and 3 Group A Streptococci Stimulate Tissue Factor-Mediated Procoagulant Activity in Human Monocytes and Endothelial Cells , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[124]  B. Rodriguez-Iturbe,et al.  Pathogenesis of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis a century after Clemens von Pirquet. , 2007, Kidney international.

[125]  L. Björck,et al.  Human kininogens interact with M protein, a bacterial surface protein and virulence determinant. , 1995, The Biochemical journal.

[126]  L. Björck,et al.  SclA, a Novel Collagen-Like Surface Protein ofStreptococcus pyogenes , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[127]  F. Baquero,et al.  Antimicrobial resistance amongst isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in the PROTEKT antimicrobial surveillance programme during 1999-2000. , 2002, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[128]  J. Jensenius,et al.  EndoS and SpeB from Streptococcus pyogenes Inhibit Immunoglobulin-Mediated Opsonophagocytosis , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[129]  R. Quinn Comprehensive review of morbidity and mortality trends for rheumatic fever, streptococcal disease, and scarlet fever: the decline of rheumatic fever. , 1989, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[130]  H. Herwald,et al.  Thrombin-activatable Fibrinolysis Inhibitor Binds to Streptococcus pyogenes by Interacting with Collagen-like Proteins A and B* , 2007, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[131]  R. van Toorn,et al.  Distinguishing PANDAS from Sydenham's chorea: case report and review of the literature. , 2004, European journal of paediatric neurology : EJPN : official journal of the European Paediatric Neurology Society.

[132]  D. Stevens,et al.  Antibiotic effects on bacterial viability, toxin production, and host response. , 1995, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[133]  M. Wessels,et al.  Hyaluronate capsule and surface M protein in resistance to opsonization of group A streptococci , 1996, Infection and immunity.

[134]  C. Chen,et al.  Coregulation of type 12 M protein and streptococcal C5a peptidase genes in group A streptococci: evidence for a virulence regulon controlled by the virR locus , 1990, Journal of bacteriology.

[135]  R. Ulrich Vaccine based on a ubiquitous cysteinyl protease and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A protects against Streptococcus pyogenes sepsis and toxic shock , 2008, Journal of immune based therapies and vaccines.

[136]  J. G. Michael,et al.  EFFECT OF SUBLETHAL CONCENTRATIONS OF PENICILLIN ON THE VIRULENCE AND ANTIGENIC COMPOSITION OF GROUP A STREPTOCOCCI , 1963, Journal of bacteriology.

[137]  A. Bisno,et al.  Acute Rheumatic Fever: A Vanishing Disease in Suburbia , 1983 .

[138]  A. Barzilai,et al.  Prevalence of internalisation-associated gene, prtF1, among persisting group-A streptococcus strains isolated from asymptomatic carriers , 1998, The Lancet.

[139]  P. Cleary,et al.  Fc-receptor and M-protein genes of group A streptococci are products of gene duplication. , 1989, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[140]  A. Bisno,et al.  Nonsuppurative Poststreptococcal Sequelae: Rheumatic Fever and Glomerulonephritis , 2015 .

[141]  T. Proft,et al.  The bacterial superantigen and superantigen‐like proteins , 2008, Immunological reviews.

[142]  J. Dale,et al.  Recombinant tetravalent group A streptococcal M protein vaccine. , 1993, Journal of immunology.

[143]  I. Ginsburg,et al.  Oxygen-stable hemolysins of group A streptococci. VII. The relation of the leukotoxic factor to streptolysin S. , 1970, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[144]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Global emm type distribution of group A streptococci: systematic review and implications for vaccine development. , 2009, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[145]  J. Musser,et al.  Substitution of cysteine 192 in a highly conserved Streptococcus pyogenes extracellular cysteine protease (interleukin 1beta convertase) alters proteolytic activity and ablates zymogen processing , 1996, Infection and immunity.

[146]  Yuriy Fofanov,et al.  Molecular complexity of successive bacterial epidemics deconvoluted by comparative pathogenomics , 2010, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[147]  R. Tanz,et al.  Seven-year surveillance of north american pediatric group a streptococcal pharyngitis isolates. , 2009, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[148]  Marilyn Roberts,et al.  Tetracycline Antibiotics: Mode of Action, Applications, Molecular Biology, and Epidemiology of Bacterial Resistance , 2001, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.

[149]  J. J. Buckley,et al.  Report of Three Cases , 1962 .

[150]  A. White,et al.  Antibodies to streptococcal inhibitor of complement function and M peptides in a post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis endemic region of Australia. , 2002, Journal of medical microbiology.

[151]  M. Boyle,et al.  A role for fibrinogen in the streptokinase-dependent acquisition of plasmin(ogen) by group A streptococci. , 1995, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[152]  S. Dedhar,et al.  Integrin‐linked kinase is an essential link between integrins and uptake of bacterial pathogens by epithelial cells , 2006, Cellular microbiology.

[153]  P. Robbins,et al.  Evidence for a Structural Role for Acid-Fast Lipids in Oocyst Walls of Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, and Eimeria , 2013, mBio.

[154]  J. Musser,et al.  Genome-wide protective response used by group A Streptococcus to evade destruction by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[155]  S. Swedo,et al.  Post-streptococcal autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system. , 2003, Current opinion in neurology.

[156]  K. O'Brien,et al.  Prevention of invasive group A streptococcal disease among household contacts of case patients and among postpartum and postsurgical patients: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. , 2002, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[157]  L. Veasey,et al.  Epitopes of group A streptococcal M protein shared with antigens of articular cartilage and synovium. , 1991, Journal of immunology.

[158]  M. Heidelberger,et al.  A SEROLOGICALLY INACTIVE POLYSACCHARIDE ELABORATED BY MUCOID STRAINS OF GROUP A HEMOLYTIC STREPTOCOCCUS , 1937 .

[159]  W. Wood,et al.  STUDIES ON THE PATHOGENICITY OF GROUP A STREPTOCOCCI , 1959, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[160]  M. Leippe,et al.  Role of fibrinogen in complement inhibition by streptococcal M protein , 1992, Infection and immunity.

[161]  M. Reddish,et al.  Intranasal Immunization with Multivalent Group A Streptococcal Vaccines Protects Mice against Intranasal Challenge Infections , 2004, Infection and Immunity.

[162]  A. Middelberg,et al.  A microbial platform for rapid and low-cost virus-like particle and capsomere vaccines. , 2011, Vaccine.

[163]  A. Tomasz,et al.  Physiological properties of penicillin-binding proteins in group A streptococci , 1981, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[164]  Yutaka Terao,et al.  Multifunctional Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase of Streptococcus pyogenes Is Essential for Evasion from Neutrophils* , 2006, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[165]  R. Edwards,et al.  Impact of immunization against SpyCEP during invasive disease with two streptococcal species: Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus equi , 2009, Vaccine.

[166]  V. Nizet,et al.  The globally disseminated M1T1 clone of group A Streptococcus evades autophagy for intracellular replication. , 2013, Cell host & microbe.

[167]  J. Musser,et al.  Group A Streptococcus emm Gene Types in Pharyngeal Isolates, Ontario, Canada, 2002–2010 , 2011, Emerging infectious diseases.

[168]  A. J. Morris,et al.  The role of the streptococcus in the pathogenesis of rheumatic fever. , 1954, The American journal of medicine.

[169]  G. Lindahl,et al.  Many group A streptococcal strains express two different immunoglobulin‐binding proteins, encoded by closely linked genes: characterization of the proteins expressed by four strains of different M‐type , 1992, Molecular microbiology.

[170]  D. Thanassi,et al.  Linkage of T3 and Cpa pilins in the Streptococcus pyogenes M3 pilus , 2009, Molecular microbiology.

[171]  G. S. Chhatwal,et al.  Nonimmune Interaction of the SfbI Protein of Streptococcus pyogenes with the Immunoglobulin G F(ab′)2Fragment , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[172]  V. Nizet,et al.  Genetic switch to hypervirulence reduces colonization phenotypes of the globally disseminated group A streptococcus M1T1 clone. , 2010, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[173]  P. Soulié,et al.  RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE , 1954, La semaine des hopitaux : organe fonde par l'Association d'enseignement medical des hopitaux de Paris.

[174]  K. Schulten,et al.  Mechanism of Tetracycline Resistance by Ribosomal Protection Protein Tet(O) , 2013, Nature Communications.

[175]  L. Björck,et al.  Virulent aggregates of Streptococcus pyogenes are generated by homophilic protein–protein interactions , 2000, Molecular microbiology.

[176]  M. Wessels,et al.  Molecular Analysis of the Capsule Gene Region of Group A Streptococcus: the hasAB Genes Are Sufficient for Capsule Expression , 1998, Journal of bacteriology.

[177]  V. Nizet,et al.  Genetic Locus for Streptolysin S Production by Group A Streptococcus , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[178]  Y. Uziel,et al.  Chapter 44 – Acute Rheumatic Fever and Poststreptococcal Reactive Arthritis , 2016 .

[179]  M. Chaussee,et al.  Temporal production of streptococcal erythrogenic toxin B (streptococcal cysteine proteinase) in response to nutrient depletion , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[180]  J. Musser,et al.  Identification and Characterization of thescl Gene Encoding a Group A StreptococcusExtracellular Protein Virulence Factor with Similarity to Human Collagen , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[181]  P. Smeesters,et al.  Differences among group A streptococcus epidemiological landscapes: consequences for M protein-based vaccines? , 2009, Expert review of vaccines.

[182]  James D. Campbell,et al.  Safety and immunogenicity of a recombinant multivalent group a streptococcal vaccine in healthy adults: phase 1 trial. , 2004, JAMA.

[183]  Todd M. Smith,et al.  Genome sequence and comparative microarray analysis of serotype M18 group A Streptococcus strains associated with acute rheumatic fever outbreaks , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[184]  E. Malchiodi,et al.  Uptake and Intracellular Trafficking of Superantigens in Dendritic Cells , 2013, PloS one.

[185]  L. Björck,et al.  α2-Macroglobulin-Proteinase Complexes Protect Streptococcus pyogenes from Killing by the Antimicrobial Peptide LL-37* , 2004, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[186]  G. Churchward The two faces of Janus: virulence gene regulation by CovR/S in group A streptococci , 2007, Molecular microbiology.

[187]  D. Lennon,et al.  Once-daily amoxicillin versus twice-daily penicillin V in group A β-haemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis , 2008, Archives of Disease in Childhood.

[188]  J. Carapetis,et al.  High burden of invasive β-haemolytic streptococcal infections in Fiji , 2007, Epidemiology and Infection.

[189]  Fredric Carlsson,et al.  Binding of human plasma proteins to Streptococcus pyogenes M protein determines the location of opsonic and non‐opsonic epitopes , 2006, Molecular microbiology.

[190]  J. Musser,et al.  Evolution of diversity in epidemics revealed by analysis of the human bacterial pathogen group A Streptococcus. , 2011, Epidemics.

[191]  M. Moro,et al.  Macrolide prescriptions and erythromycin resistance of Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2006, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[192]  S. Bentley,et al.  Molecular Analysis of an Outbreak of Lethal Postpartum Sepsis Caused by Streptococcus pyogenes , 2013, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[193]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Group A streptococcal infections in children , 2007, Journal of paediatrics and child health.

[194]  F. Baquero,et al.  Importance of Local Variations in Antibiotic Consumption and Geographical Differences of Erythromycin and Penicillin Resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[195]  Elise R. Hondorp,et al.  The Mga virulence regulon: infection where the grass is greener , 2007, Molecular microbiology.

[196]  Dwight R. Johnson,et al.  Epidemiologic analysis of group A streptococcal serotypes associated with severe systemic infections, rheumatic fever, or uncomplicated pharyngitis. , 1992, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[197]  R. Olsen,et al.  Molecular mechanisms underlying group A streptococcal pathogenesis , 2009, Cellular microbiology.

[198]  E. N. Fox,et al.  Protective studies with a group A streptococcal M protein vaccine. II. Challange of volenteers after local immunization in the upper respiratory tract. , 1975, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[199]  R. Lamont,et al.  Streptococcus Adherence and Colonization , 2009, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.

[200]  M. Simmons,et al.  Recombinant, octavalent group A streptococcal M protein vaccine. , 1996, Vaccine.

[201]  V. Nizet,et al.  IgG Protease Mac/IdeS Is Not Essential for Phagocyte Resistance or Mouse Virulence of M1T1 Group A Streptococcus , 2013, mBio.

[202]  A. Aseffa,et al.  High diversity of group A streptococcal emm types among healthy schoolchildren in Ethiopia. , 2006, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[203]  E. Kaplan,et al.  Significance of Quantitative Salivary Cultures for Group A and Non-group A β-Hemolytic Streptococci in Patients with Pharyngitis and in Their Family Contacts , 1979, Pediatrics.

[204]  Dwight R. Johnson,et al.  Streptococcal Infection and Exacerbations of Childhood Tics and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms: A Prospective Blinded Cohort Study , 2008, Pediatrics.

[205]  K. Danø,et al.  Plasminogen activators, tissue degradation, and cancer. , 1985, Advances in cancer research.

[206]  F. W. Denny,et al.  Effect in penicillin and aureomycin on the natural course of streptococcal tonsillitis and pharyngitis. , 1951, The American journal of medicine.

[207]  L. Björck,et al.  Streptococcal M Protein: A Multipotent and Powerful Inducer of Inflammation1 , 2006, The Journal of Immunology.

[208]  A. Barzilai,et al.  Effect of lipoteichoic acid on the uptake of Streptococcus pyogenes by HEp-2 cells. , 2000, FEMS microbiology letters.

[209]  K. Acharya,et al.  Structural basis for the recognition of superantigen streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA1) by MHC class II molecules and T‐cell receptors , 1999, The EMBO journal.

[210]  R. Facklam,et al.  M Protein Gene Type Distribution among Group A Streptococcal Clinical Isolates Recovered in Mexico City, Mexico, from 1991 to 2000, and Durango, Mexico, from 1998 to 1999: Overlap with Type Distribution within the United States , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[211]  R. Kaempfer,et al.  Binding of Superantigen Toxins into the CD28 Homodimer Interface Is Essential for Induction of Cytokine Genes That Mediate Lethal Shock , 2011, PLoS biology.

[212]  J. Zabriskie,et al.  Group A streptococcus-liposome ELISA antibody titers to group A polysaccharide and opsonophagocytic capabilities of the antibodies. , 1995, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[213]  J. Seyer,et al.  Opsonic antibodies evoked by hybrid peptide copies of types 5 and 24 streptococcal M proteins synthesized in tandem , 1986, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[214]  W. Parsons,et al.  Diagnosis and treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis. , 1985, JAMA.

[215]  G. Phillips,et al.  Streptococcal M protein: alpha-helical coiled-coil structure and arrangement on the cell surface. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[216]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Streptococci: Identification of a Fibronectin-Binding Repeat Domain , 1994 .

[217]  J. Mathews,et al.  Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is a strong risk factor for chronic kidney disease in later life. , 2012, Kidney international.

[218]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Identification and Characterization of a Novel Fibronectin-Binding Protein on the Surface of Group A Streptococci , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[219]  W. Andrew Simpson,et al.  Type-specific protective immunity evoked by synthetic peptide of Streptococcus pyogenes M protein , 1981, Nature.

[220]  G. Bokoch,et al.  De novo formation of focal complex‐like structures in host cells by invading Streptococci , 2001, Molecular microbiology.

[221]  H. Chambers,et al.  Penicillin-binding protein-mediated resistance in pneumococci and staphylococci. , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[222]  S. Hamada,et al.  Molecular Characterization of a Novel Fibronectin-binding Protein of Streptococcus pyogenesStrains Isolated from Toxic Shock-like Syndrome Patients* , 2002, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[223]  G. Orefici,et al.  An outbreak of group a food-borne streptococcal pharyngitis , 1992, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[224]  Bruce A. Roe,et al.  Complete genome sequence of an M1 strain of Streptococcus pyogenes , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[225]  P. Cleary,et al.  Genetic dissection of the Streptococcus pyogenes M1 protein: regions involved in fibronectin binding and intracellular invasion. , 2001, Microbial pathogenesis.

[226]  P. Tsai,et al.  Role of Streptococcal Pyrogenic Exotoxin B in the Mouse Model of Group A Streptococcal Infection , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[227]  V. Nizet,et al.  The IL-8 protease SpyCEP/ScpC of group A Streptococcus promotes resistance to neutrophil killing. , 2008, Cell host & microbe.

[228]  B. Sundell,et al.  Experimental gastric ulcers in rats treated with vagotomy and pyloric ligation. , 2009, Acta pathologica et microbiologica Scandinavica.

[229]  V. Nizet,et al.  Trigger for group A streptococcal M1T1 invasive disease , 2006, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[230]  R. P. Ross,et al.  Streptolysin S-like virulence factors: the continuing sagA , 2011, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[231]  A. Olsén,et al.  Effect of SpeB and EndoS from Streptococcus pyogenes on Human Immunoglobulins , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[232]  H. Flaatten,et al.  Necrotizing soft tissue infections caused by Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis of groups C and G in western Norway. , 2013, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[233]  B. Kreikemeyer,et al.  Characterization of a novel fibronectin‐binding surface protein in group A streptococci , 1995, Molecular microbiology.

[234]  K. Schulze,et al.  Novel Conserved Group A Streptococcal Proteins Identified by the Antigenome Technology as Vaccine Candidates for a Non-M Protein-Based Vaccine , 2010, Infection and Immunity.

[235]  J. Langley,et al.  Safety and immunogenicity of 26-valent group a streptococcus vaccine in healthy adult volunteers. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[236]  R. Alexander Treatment of acute streptococcal pharyngitis and prevention of rheumatic fever: A statement for health professionals , 1996 .

[237]  M. Ranson,et al.  The Maintenance of High Affinity Plasminogen Binding by Group A Streptococcal Plasminogen-binding M-like Protein Is Mediated by Arginine and Histidine Residues within the a1 and a2 Repeat Domains* , 2006, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[238]  J. Atkinson,et al.  Membrane cofactor protein (CD46) is a keratinocyte receptor for the M protein of the group A streptococcus. , 1995, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[239]  R. Bhatnagar,et al.  Surface localized and extracellular Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase of Bacillus anthracis is a plasminogen binding protein. , 2010, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[240]  I. Brook,et al.  Failure to eradicate streptococci and beta‐lactamase producing bacteria , 2008, Acta paediatrica.

[241]  L. Valinsky,et al.  A cluster of ecthyma outbreaks caused by a single clone of invasive and highly infective Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2009, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[242]  Xiaohong Wang,et al.  Outbreak of Scarlet Fever Associated With emm12 Type Group A Streptococcus in 2011 in Shanghai, China , 2012, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[243]  A. Zychlinsky,et al.  Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Kill Bacteria , 2004, Science.

[244]  G. Orefici,et al.  Therapeutic Failures of Antibiotics Used To Treat Macrolide-Susceptible Streptococcus pyogenes Infections May Be Due to Biofilm Formation , 2006, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[245]  L. Björck,et al.  Erysipelas caused by group A streptococcus activates the contact system and induces the release of heparin-binding protein. , 2010, Journal of Investigative Dermatology.

[246]  J. Musser,et al.  Progress toward characterization of the group A Streptococcus metagenome: complete genome sequence of a macrolide-resistant serotype M6 strain. , 2004, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[247]  D. Metzgar,et al.  The M protein of group A Streptococcus is a key virulence factor and a clinically relevant strain identification marker , 2011, Virulence.

[248]  V. Nizet,et al.  Conserved anchorless surface proteins as group A streptococcal vaccine candidates , 2012, Journal of Molecular Medicine.

[249]  Y. Andersson,et al.  A food-borne streptococcal sore throat outbreak in a small community , 2006, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[250]  B. Kreikemeyer,et al.  Virulence factor regulation and regulatory networks in Streptococcus pyogenes and their impact on pathogen-host interactions. , 2003, Trends in microbiology.

[251]  J. Musser,et al.  Evasion of human innate and acquired immunity by a bacterial homolog of CD11b that inhibits opsonophagocytosis , 2001, Nature Medicine.

[252]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Protection against streptococcal pharyngeal colonization with a vaccinia: M protein recombinant , 1989, Science.

[253]  J. Malmström,et al.  A Novel Role for Pro-Coagulant Microvesicles in the Early Host Defense against Streptococcus pyogenes , 2013, PLoS pathogens.

[254]  Adeline R. Whitney,et al.  Extracellular deoxyribonuclease made by group A Streptococcus assists pathogenesis by enhancing evasion of the innate immune response. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[255]  M. Gershwin,et al.  Acute rheumatic fever and its consequences: a persistent threat to developing nations in the 21st century. , 2009, Autoimmunity reviews.

[256]  S. Richter,et al.  Macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes in the United States, 2002-2003. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[257]  M. Wessels,et al.  NAD+‐glycohydrolase acts as an intracellular toxin to enhance the extracellular survival of group A streptococci , 2002, Molecular microbiology.

[258]  M. Chevion,et al.  Incorporation of d-Alanine into the Membrane of Streptococcus pyogenes and Its Stabilized L-Form , 1974, Journal of bacteriology.

[259]  F. Jamal Group A streptococcal infections. , 1996, The Malaysian journal of pathology.

[260]  J. Musser,et al.  Growth Characteristics of and Virulence Factor Production by Group A Streptococcus during Cultivation in Human Saliva , 2005, Infection and Immunity.

[261]  M. Pichichero,et al.  Human immune response to streptococcal inhibitor of complement, a serotype M1 group A Streptococcus extracellular protein involved in epidemics. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[262]  O. Leon,et al.  Differences in penicillin-binding proteins of Streptococcus pyogenes and two derived, stabilized L forms , 1988, Journal of bacteriology.

[263]  B. Dougherty,et al.  Molecular characterization of a locus required for hyaluronic acid capsule production in group A streptococci , 1992, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[264]  M. Roberts,et al.  Presence of the tet(O) Gene in Erythromycin- and Tetracycline-Resistant Strains of Streptococcus pyogenes and Linkage with either the mef(A) or the erm(A) Gene , 2003, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[265]  M. H. Young,et al.  Therapies for necrotising fasciitis , 2006, Expert opinion on biological therapy.

[266]  M. Perego,et al.  Incorporation of D-Alanine into Lipoteichoic Acid and Wall Teichoic Acid in Bacillus subtilis , 1995, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[267]  P. Dorrestein,et al.  A Bacterial Pathogen Co-opts Host Plasmin to Resist Killing by Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptides* , 2012, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[268]  G. Lindahl,et al.  Human fibrinogen bound to Streptococcus pyogenes M protein inhibits complement deposition via the classical pathway , 2005, Molecular microbiology.

[269]  J. Enders,et al.  Infectious Diseases Society of America. , 1969, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy.

[270]  G. Bensi,et al.  Characterization and identification of vaccine candidate proteins through analysis of the group A Streptococcus surface proteome , 2006, Nature Biotechnology.

[271]  V. Nizet,et al.  Chemokine-cleaving Streptococcus pyogenes protease SpyCEP is necessary and sufficient for bacterial dissemination within soft tissues and the respiratory tract , 2010, Molecular microbiology.

[272]  V. DiRita,et al.  Spontaneous mutations in the CsrRS two-component regulatory system of Streptococcus pyogenes result in enhanced virulence in a murine model of skin and soft tissue infection. , 2001, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[273]  E L Kaplan,et al.  Why have group A streptococci remained susceptible to penicillin? Report on a symposium. , 1998, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[274]  J. McArthur,et al.  M protein‐mediated plasminogen binding is essential for the virulence of an invasive Streptococcus pyogenes isolate , 2008, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[275]  B. F. Massell,et al.  Rheumatic fever following streptococcal vaccination. Report of three cases. , 1969, JAMA.

[276]  M. Good,et al.  Mapping the minimal murine T cell and B cell epitopes within a peptide vaccine candidate from the conserved region of the M protein of group A streptococcus. , 1997, International immunology.

[277]  S. Sakarya,et al.  Food-borne tonsillopharyngitis outbreak in a hospital cafeteria , 2012, Infection.

[278]  N. Greenspan,et al.  A subset of mouse monoclonal antibodies cross-reactive with cytoskeletal proteins and group A streptococcal M proteins recognizes N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosamine. , 1993, Journal of immunology.

[279]  J. Schellekens,et al.  Site-Specific Manifestations of Invasive Group A Streptococcal Disease: Type Distribution and Corresponding Patterns of Virulence Determinants , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[280]  J. Nishiyama,et al.  Acute glomerulonephritis. , 2000, Internal medicine.

[281]  Z. Eichenbaum,et al.  Defense from the Group A Streptococcus by active and passive vaccination with the streptococcal hemoprotein receptor. , 2011, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[282]  K. S. Sriprakash,et al.  Genomic Location and Variation of the Gene for CRS, a Complement Binding Protein in the M57 Strains of Streptococcus pyogenes , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[283]  B. Schwartz,et al.  Association of phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of invasive Streptococcus pyogenes isolates with clinical components of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome , 1993, Infection and immunity.

[284]  Manfred S. Green,et al.  A large food-borne outbreak of group A streptococcal pharyngitis in an industrial plant: potential for deliberate contamination. , 2006, The Israel Medical Association journal : IMAJ.

[285]  G. Bensi,et al.  Group A Streptococcus produce pilus-like structures containing protective antigens and Lancefield T antigens , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[286]  D. Low,et al.  Reduced Virulence of Group A Streptococcal Tn916 Mutants That Do Not Produce Streptolysin S , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[287]  A. Stjernquist-Desatnik,et al.  Penetration of penicillin V to tonsillar surface fluid in healthy individuals and in patients with acute tonsillitis , 1993, The Journal of Laryngology & Otology.

[288]  L. Wright,et al.  Effect of antibiotic therapy on the clinical course of streptococcal pharyngitis. , 1985, The Journal of pediatrics.

[289]  Dwight R. Johnson,et al.  Susceptibility of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci to thirteen antibiotics: examination of 301 strains isolated in the United States between 1994 and 1997. , 1999, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[290]  J. Malmström,et al.  Stimulation of blood mononuclear cells with bacterial virulence factors leads to the release of pro‐coagulant and pro‐inflammatory microparticles , 2012, Cellular microbiology.

[291]  I. van de Rijn,et al.  Characterization of a Two-component System in Streptococcus pyogenes Which Is Involved in Regulation of Hyaluronic Acid Production* , 1999, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[292]  A. Gastañaduy,et al.  FAILURE OF PENICILLIN TO ERADICATE GROUP A STREPTOCOCCI DURING AN OUTBREAK OF PHARYNGITIS , 1980, The Lancet.

[293]  R. Edwards,et al.  Specific C-terminal cleavage and inactivation of interleukin-8 by invasive disease isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[294]  L. Truedsson,et al.  Antibodies against Four Proteins from a Streptococcus pyogenes Serotype M1 Strain and Levels of Circulating Mannan-Binding Lectin in Acute Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis , 2006, International Archives of Allergy and Immunology.

[295]  J. Carapetis Current issues in managing group A streptococcal infections. , 2004, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[296]  E. Kaplan,et al.  Studies of the continuing susceptibility of group A streptococcal strains to penicillin during eight decades. , 1998, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[297]  Michal J. Nagiec,et al.  Molecular genetic anatomy of inter- and intraserotype variation in the human bacterial pathogen group A Streptococcus. , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[298]  M. Dowton,et al.  Divergence in the Plasminogen-binding Group A Streptococcal M Protein Family , 2006, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[299]  J. Musser,et al.  Genetic Inactivation of an Extracellular Cysteine Protease (SpeB) Expressed by Streptococcus pyogenes Decreases Resistance to Phagocytosis and Dissemination to Organs , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[300]  C. Silva-Costa,et al.  Rapid Inversion of the Prevalences of Macrolide Resistance Phenotypes Paralleled by a Diversification of T and emm Types among Streptococcus pyogenes in Portugal , 2005, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[301]  Z. Eichenbaum,et al.  Identification and Characterization of a Streptococcus pyogenes Operon Involved in Binding of Hemoproteins and Acquisition of Iron , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[302]  I. Ofek,et al.  Multiple adhesins of streptococci , 1992, Infection and immunity.

[303]  P. Schlievert,et al.  Cytolysins Augment Superantigen Penetration of Stratified Mucosa1 , 2009, The Journal of Immunology.

[304]  D. Baldwin,et al.  The long-term course of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. , 1974, Annals of internal medicine.

[305]  L. Guilherme,et al.  Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease: Cellular Mechanisms Leading Autoimmune Reactivity and Disease , 2009, Journal of Clinical Immunology.

[306]  C. Gillen,et al.  Human pathogenic streptococcal proteomics and vaccine development , 2008, Proteomics. Clinical applications.

[307]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Antiphagocytic activity of streptococcal M protein: selective binding of complement control protein factor H. , 1988, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[308]  S. Hamada,et al.  Systemic and Mucosal Immunizations with Fibronectin-Binding Protein FBP54 Induce Protective Immune Responses against Streptococcus pyogenes Challenge in Mice , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[309]  A. Bisno,et al.  Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis: 2012 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America , 2012, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[310]  D. Moore,et al.  Invasive group A streptococcal disease: Management and chemoprophylaxis. , 2010, Paediatrics & child health.

[311]  D. Ohlendorf,et al.  Structure of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A reveals a novel metal cluster , 2000, Protein science : a publication of the Protein Society.

[312]  E. Hanski,et al.  Characterization of a mouse-passaged, highly encapsulated variant of group A streptococcus in in vitro and in vivo studies. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[313]  Meng-Yao Liu,et al.  Genome sequence of a serotype M3 strain of group A Streptococcus: Phage-encoded toxins, the high-virulence phenotype, and clone emergence , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[314]  W. Hoy,et al.  Childhood post‐streptococcal glomerulonephritis as a risk factor for chronic renal disease in later life , 2001, The Medical journal of Australia.

[315]  H. Courtney,et al.  Serum Opacity Factor (SOF) of Streptococcus pyogenes Evokes Antibodies That Opsonize Homologous and Heterologous SOF-Positive Serotypes of Group A Streptococci , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[316]  Malak Kotb,et al.  An immunogenetic and molecular basis for differences in outcomes of invasive group A streptococcal infections , 2002, Nature Medicine.

[317]  D. Bessen,et al.  Population Genetics and Linkage Analysis of Loci within the FCT Region of Streptococcus pyogenes , 2006, Journal of bacteriology.

[318]  D. Cue,et al.  Acquisition of Regulators of Complement Activation by Streptococcus pyogenes Serotype M1 , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[319]  A. Norrby-Teglund,et al.  Beyond the traditional immune response: bacterial interaction with phagocytic cells. , 2013, International journal of antimicrobial agents.

[320]  A. A. Lopes,et al.  Associação entre raça e incidência de doença renal terminal secundária a glomerulonefrite: influência do tipo histológico e da presença de hipertensão arterial , 2001 .

[321]  Jonathan D. Cohen,et al.  Molecular analysis of the role of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SPEA) in invasive soft‐tissue infection resulting from Streptococcus pyogenes , 1999, Molecular microbiology.

[322]  V. Nizet,et al.  Study of the IgG endoglycosidase EndoS in group A streptococcal phagocyte resistance and virulence , 2011, BMC Microbiology.

[323]  J. Carapetis,et al.  High burden of invasive beta-haemolytic streptococcal infections in Fiji. , 2008, Epidemiology and infection.

[324]  T. C. Barnett,et al.  Surface proteins of gram-positive bacteria and how they get there. , 2006, Annual review of microbiology.

[325]  Rino Rappuoli,et al.  Reverse vaccinology. , 2000, Current opinion in microbiology.

[326]  H. Courtney,et al.  New protective antigen of group A streptococci. , 1999, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[327]  J. Musser,et al.  Multi High-Throughput Approach for Highly Selective Identification of Vaccine Candidates: the Group A Streptococcus Case , 2012, Molecular & Cellular Proteomics.

[328]  L. Björck,et al.  Treatment of invasive streptococcal infection with a peptide derived from human high-molecular weight kininogen. , 2009, Blood.

[329]  J. Atkinson,et al.  Engagement of CD46 and α5β1 integrin by group A streptococci is required for efficient invasion of epithelial cells , 2005 .

[330]  J. Hoover-Plow,et al.  The cell biology of the plasminogen system , 1995, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[331]  P. Åkesson,et al.  IdeS, a Highly Specific Immunoglobulin G (IgG)-Cleaving Enzyme from Streptococcus pyogenes, Is Inhibited by Specific IgG Antibodies Generated during Infection , 2006, Infection and Immunity.

[332]  P. Cleary,et al.  Active and Passive Intranasal Immunizations with Streptococcal Surface Protein C5a Peptidase Prevent Infection of Murine Nasal Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue, a Functional Homologue of Human Tonsils , 2005, Infection and Immunity.

[333]  P Huovinen,et al.  The effect of changes in the consumption of macrolide antibiotics on erythromycin resistance in group A streptococci in Finland. Finnish Study Group for Antimicrobial Resistance. , 1997, The New England journal of medicine.

[334]  B. Henriques-Normark,et al.  Group A Streptococci from carriage and disease in Portugal: evolution of antimicrobial resistance and T antigenic types during 2000-2002. , 2005, Microbial drug resistance.

[335]  H. Ohya,et al.  Distribution of emm genotypes among group A streptococcus isolates from patients with severe invasive streptococcal infections in Japan, 2001–2005 , 2007, Epidemiology and Infection.

[336]  E. N. Fox,et al.  Protective studies with group A streptococcal M protein vaccine. III. Challenge of volunteers after systemic or intranasal immunization with Type 3 or Type 12 group A Streptococcus. , 1978, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[337]  Mengyao Liu,et al.  Active and Passive Immunizations with the Streptococcal Esterase Sse Protect Mice against Subcutaneous Infection with Group A Streptococci , 2007, Infection and Immunity.

[338]  D. Ribardo,et al.  Defining the Mga regulon: comparative transcriptome analysis reveals both direct and indirect regulation by Mga in the group A streptococcus , 2006, Molecular microbiology.

[339]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Streptococcal M protein: molecular design and biological behavior , 1989, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[340]  M. Wessels,et al.  Cytolysin-dependent evasion of lysosomal killing. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[341]  Yhu-Chering Huang,et al.  Scarlet fever outbreak in Hong Kong, 2011. , 2011, Journal of microbiology, immunology, and infection = Wei mian yu gan ran za zhi.

[342]  P. Lachmann,et al.  The interaction of streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC) and its proteolytic fragments with the human beta defensins , 2004, Immunology.

[343]  D. Moore,et al.  Invasive group A streptococcal disease: Management and chemoprophylaxis. , 2010, Paediatrics & child health.

[344]  M. Wessels,et al.  The CsrR/CsrS two-component system of group A Streptococcus responds to environmental Mg2+ , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[345]  A. Lopes,et al.  [Association between race and incidence of end-stage renal disease secondary to glomerulonephritis: influence of the histologic type and presence of arterial hypertension]. , 2001, Revista da Associacao Medica Brasileira.

[346]  K. S. Sriprakash,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes strains containing emm12 and emm55 possess a novel gene coding for distantly related SIC protein. , 1999, Microbial pathogenesis.

[347]  L. Björck,et al.  Biological properties of a Streptococcus pyogenes mutant generated by Tn916 insertion in mga. , 1995, Microbial pathogenesis.

[348]  J. Musser,et al.  Nonpolar Inactivation of the Hypervariable Streptococcal Inhibitor of Complement Gene (sic) in Serotype M1 Streptococcus pyogenes Significantly Decreases Mouse Mucosal Colonization , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[349]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Strain prevalence, rather than innate virulence potential, is the major factor responsible for an increase in serious group A streptococcus infections. , 2007, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[350]  J. Seyer,et al.  Type-specific immunogenicity of a chemically synthesized peptide fragment of type 5 streptococcal M protein , 1983, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[351]  J. Musser,et al.  Evolutionary origin and emergence of a highly successful clone of serotype M1 group a Streptococcus involved multiple horizontal gene transfer events. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[352]  E. Tikhomirov,et al.  Streptococcal diseases worldwide: present status and prospects. , 1987, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[353]  K. Berggård,et al.  Role of the hypervariable region in streptococcal M proteins: binding of a human complement inhibitor. , 1998, Journal of immunology.

[354]  M. Cunningham,et al.  Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. , 2000, Clinical microbiology reviews.

[355]  R. Majdzadeh,et al.  An outbreak of food-borne group A Streptococcus (GAS) tonsillopharyngitis among residents of a dormitory , 2005, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[356]  J. McCarthy,et al.  Skin infections among Indigenous Australians in an urban setting in Far North Queensland , 2007, Epidemiology and Infection.

[357]  E. Makogonenko,et al.  Activating effect of the plasminogen activators on plasminogens of different mammalia species. , 1995, Thrombosis research.

[358]  Dwight R. Johnson,et al.  Unexplained reduced microbiological efficacy of intramuscular benzathine penicillin G and of oral penicillin V in eradication of group a streptococci from children with acute pharyngitis. , 2001, Pediatrics.

[359]  E. Pérez-Trallero,et al.  In Vitro Activities of Retapamulin and 16 Other Antimicrobial Agents against Recently Obtained Streptococcus pyogenes Isolates , 2011, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[360]  B. Limbago,et al.  Role of Streptolysin O in a Mouse Model of Invasive Group A Streptococcal Disease , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[361]  D. Bessen Population biology of the human restricted pathogen, Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2009, Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases.

[362]  P. Cleary,et al.  Localization of the streptococcal C5a peptidase to the surface of group A streptococci , 1986, Infection and immunity.

[363]  Tracy L. Dalton,et al.  CovS Inactivates CovR and Is Required for Growth under Conditions of General Stress in Streptococcus pyogenes , 2004, Journal of bacteriology.

[364]  D. Clewell,et al.  Unconstrained bacterial promiscuity: the Tn916-Tn1545 family of conjugative transposons. , 1995, Trends in microbiology.

[365]  A. Adler,et al.  Anti-inflammatory treatment for carditis in acute rheumatic fever. , 2015, The Cochrane database of systematic reviews.

[366]  E. Pérez-Trallero,et al.  Prevalence and Clonal Characterization of Streptococcus pyogenes Clinical Isolates with Reduced Fluoroquinolone Susceptibility in Spain , 2009, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[367]  H. Sakata,et al.  Biofilm formation or internalization into epithelial cells enable Streptococcus pyogenes to evade antibiotic eradication in patients with pharyngitis. , 2011, Microbial pathogenesis.

[368]  Dwight R. Johnson,et al.  Streptococcal upper respiratory tract infections and exacerbations of tic and obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a prospective longitudinal study. , 2011, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[369]  Q. Cheng,et al.  M+ Group A Streptococci Are Phagocytized and Killed in Whole Blood by C5a-Activated Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[370]  J. Marimón,et al.  Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Streptococcus pyogenes Isolates Displaying the MLSB Phenotype of Macrolide Resistance in Spain, 1999 to 2005 , 2007, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[371]  Manisha Pandey,et al.  Long-Term Antibody Memory Induced by Synthetic Peptide Vaccination Is Protective against Streptococcus pyogenes Infection and Is Independent of Memory T Cell Help , 2013, The Journal of Immunology.

[372]  P. Model,et al.  Cell wall sorting signals in surface proteins of gram‐positive bacteria. , 1993, The EMBO journal.

[373]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Conservation of a hexapeptide sequence in the anchor region of surface proteins from Gram‐positive cocci , 1990, Molecular microbiology.

[374]  C. J. Wright,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes antigen I/II-family polypeptide AspA shows differential ligand-binding properties and mediates biofilm formation , 2011, Molecular microbiology.

[375]  A. Hofmann,et al.  Evaluation of novel Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidates incorporating multiple conserved sequences from the C-repeat region of the M-protein. , 2012, Vaccine.

[376]  A. Norrby-Teglund,et al.  Host variation in cytokine responses to superantigens determine the severity of invasive group A streptococcal infection , 2000, European journal of immunology.

[377]  A. Norrby-Teglund,et al.  Variations in emm Type among Group A Streptococcal Isolates Causing Invasive or Noninvasive Infections in a Nationwide Study , 2005, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[378]  G. Syrogiannopoulos,et al.  Two Dosages of Clarithromycin for Five Days, Amoxicillin/Clavulanate for Five Days or Penicillin V for Ten Days in Acute Group A Streptococcal Tonsillopharyngitis , 2004, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[379]  D. Bessen,et al.  Roles of the plasminogen activator streptokinase and the plasminogen-associated M protein in an experimental model for streptococcal impetigo. , 2002, Microbiology.

[380]  Sunjoo Kim,et al.  Decline in erythromycin resistance in group A Streptococci from acute pharyngitis due to changes in the emm Genotypes rather than restriction of antibiotic use. , 2010, The Korean journal of laboratory medicine.

[381]  S. Swedo,et al.  Mimicry and autoantibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in Sydenham chorea , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[382]  T. Proft,et al.  Streptococcal superantigens: categorization and clinical associations. , 2014, Trends in molecular medicine.

[383]  J. McArthur,et al.  Allelic variants of streptokinase from Streptococcus pyogenes display functional differences in plasminogen activation , 2008, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[384]  V. Nizet,et al.  Opacity Factor Activity and Epithelial Cell Binding by the Serum Opacity Factor Protein of Streptococcus pyogenes Are Functionally Discrete* , 2008, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[385]  D. Bessen,et al.  Role for a secreted cysteine proteinase in the establishment of host tissue tropism by group A streptococci , 2000, Molecular microbiology.

[386]  D. Bessen,et al.  Genomic Localization of a T Serotype Locus to a Recombinatorial Zone Encoding Extracellular Matrix-Binding Proteins in Streptococcus pyogenes , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[387]  Ken Smith,et al.  Inactivation of the CovR/S Virulence Regulator Impairs Infection in an Improved Murine Model of Streptococcus pyogenes Naso-Pharyngeal Infection , 2013, PloS one.

[388]  Adeline R. Whitney,et al.  Genome-wide molecular dissection of serotype M3 group A Streptococcus strains causing two epidemics of invasive infections. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[389]  B. Halpern,et al.  Immunological Relationship between Streptococcus A Polysaccharide and the Structural Glycoproteins of Heart Valve , 1967, Nature.

[390]  Haruo Watanabe,et al.  Antimicrobial Susceptibility Survey of Streptococcus pyogenes Isolated in Japan from Patients with Severe Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections , 2005, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[391]  V. Nizet,et al.  Molecular Genetic Analysis of a Group A Streptococcus Operon Encoding Serum Opacity Factor and a Novel Fibronectin-Binding Protein, SfbX , 2003, Journal of bacteriology.

[392]  B. Rodriguez-Iturbe Nephritis-associated streptococcal antigens: where are we now? , 2004, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN.

[393]  P. Cleary,et al.  Intranasal immunization with C5a peptidase prevents nasopharyngeal colonization of mice by the group A Streptococcus , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[394]  G. S. Chhatwal,et al.  Protective immune response against Streptococcus pyogenes in mice after intranasal vaccination with the fibronectin-binding protein SfbI. , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[395]  I. Campbell,et al.  Pathogenic bacteria attach to human fibronectin through a tandem β-zipper , 2003, Nature.

[396]  G. Lindahl,et al.  Ig-binding surface proteins of Streptococcus pyogenes also bind human C4b-binding protein (C4BP), a regulatory component of the complement system. , 1995, Journal of immunology.

[397]  R. Kaempfer,et al.  Superantigen antagonist protects against lethal shock and defines a new domain for T-cell activation , 2000, Nature Medicine.

[398]  T. Penfound,et al.  New 30-valent M protein-based vaccine evokes cross-opsonic antibodies against non-vaccine serotypes of group A streptococci. , 2011, Vaccine.

[399]  L. Guilherme,et al.  StreptInCor: A Candidate Vaccine Epitope against S. pyogenes Infections Induces Protection in Outbred Mice , 2013, PloS one.

[400]  S. Richter,et al.  Fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2003, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[401]  R. Lynfield,et al.  The epidemiology of invasive group A streptococcal infection and potential vaccine implications: United States, 2000-2004. , 2007, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[402]  R. Rappuoli Reverse vaccinology : Genomics , 2000 .

[403]  G. S. Chhatwal,et al.  Identification and Characterization of a Novel Secreted Immunoglobulin Binding Protein from Group A Streptococcus , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[404]  R. Geist,et al.  Positive transcriptional control of mry regulates virulence in the group A streptococcus , 1993, Molecular microbiology.

[405]  M. Rohde,et al.  Upregulation of capsule enables Streptococcus pyogenes to evade immune recognition by antigen-specific antibodies directed to the G-related alpha2-macroglobulin-binding protein GRAB located on the bacterial surface. , 2007, Microbes and infection.

[406]  S. Hamada,et al.  Fba, a novel fibronectin‐binding protein from Streptococcus pyogenes, promotes bacterial entry into epithelial cells, and the fba gene is positively transcribed under the Mga regulator , 2001, Molecular microbiology.

[407]  A. Norrby-Teglund,et al.  Evidence for superantigen involvement in severe group a streptococcal tissue infections. , 2001, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[408]  L. McGee,et al.  Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes Isolates Due to Spontaneous Mutation and Horizontal Gene Transfer , 2006, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[409]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Invasive Group a Streptococcal Disease , 2008 .

[410]  G. Bensi,et al.  Targeted Amino Acid Substitutions Impair Streptolysin O Toxicity and Group A Streptococcus Virulence , 2013, mBio.

[411]  A. H. M. Mil Acute rheumatic fever and poststreptococcal reactive arthritis reconsidered , 2010 .

[412]  M. Bronze,et al.  Epitopes of group A streptococcal M protein that evoke cross-protective local immune responses. , 1992, Journal of immunology.

[413]  M. C. N. de Melo,et al.  Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and genomic diversity in strains of Streptococcus pyogenes isolated in 1978-1997 in different Brazilian cities. , 2003, Journal of medical microbiology.

[414]  H. Herwald,et al.  Streptococcal M proteins and their role as virulence determinants. , 2010, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[415]  V. Nizet,et al.  DNase Sda1 Allows Invasive M1T1 Group A Streptococcus to Prevent TLR9-Dependent Recognition , 2012, PLoS pathogens.

[416]  P. Cleary,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes Serotype M1 Encodes Multiple Pathways for Entry into Human Epithelial Cells , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[417]  T. Miyoshi‐Akiyama,et al.  Cytocidal effect of Streptococcus pyogenes on mouse neutrophils in vivo and the critical role of streptolysin S. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[418]  M. Caparon,et al.  Protein F, a fibronectin-binding protein, is an adhesin of the group A streptococcus Streptococcus pyogenes. , 1992, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[419]  S. D. Butler,et al.  Emergence of a bacterial clone with enhanced virulence by acquisition of a phage encoding a secreted phospholipase A2 , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[420]  S. Oliveira PANDAS: a new disease? , 2007 .

[421]  V. Winn,et al.  The Eagle effect revisited: efficacy of clindamycin, erythromycin, and penicillin in the treatment of streptococcal myositis. , 1988, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[422]  B. Hirst,et al.  Pili mediate specific adhesion of Streptococcus pyogenes to human tonsil and skin , 2007, Cellular microbiology.

[423]  M. Cunningham Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections and their sequelae. , 2008, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[424]  B. Dougherty,et al.  Molecular characterization of hasA from an operon required for hyaluronic acid synthesis in group A streptococci. , 1994, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[425]  J. Musser,et al.  Distribution of streptococcal inhibitor of complement variants in pharyngitis and invasive isolates in an epidemic of serotype M1 group A Streptococcus infection. , 2001, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[426]  Ichiro Nakagawa,et al.  A novel, anchorless streptococcal surface protein that binds to human immunoglobulins. , 2002, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[427]  W Reichardt,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2001, Contributions to microbiology.

[428]  M. McDonald,et al.  Acute rheumatic fever – Authors' reply , 2005, The Lancet.

[429]  H. Courtney,et al.  Anti‐phagocytic mechanisms of Streptococcus pyogenes: binding of fibrinogen to M‐related protein , 2006, Molecular microbiology.

[430]  I. Campbell,et al.  Pathogenic bacteria attach to human fibronectin through a tandem beta-zipper. , 2003, Nature.

[431]  N. Kashihara,et al.  Co-occurrence of poststreptococcal reactive arthritis and acute glomerulonephritis , 2008, Modern rheumatology.

[432]  S. Swedo,et al.  PANDAS: current status and directions for research , 2004, Molecular Psychiatry.

[433]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Evidence for two distinct classes of streptococcal M protein and their relationship to rheumatic fever , 1989, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[434]  S. Lok,et al.  Molecular characterization of the 2011 Hong Kong scarlet fever outbreak. , 2012, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[435]  R. Olsen,et al.  Molecular pathogenesis of necrotizing fasciitis. , 2010, Annual review of pathology.

[436]  M. Pichichero,et al.  Efficacy of Cephalexin Two vs. Three Times Daily vs. Cefadroxil Once Daily for Streptococcal Tonsillopharyngitis , 2003, Clinical pediatrics.

[437]  J. Melo-Cristino,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes isolated in Portugal: macrolide resistance phenotypes and correlation with T types. Portuguese Surveillance Group for the Study of Respiratory Pathogens. , 1999, Microbial drug resistance.

[438]  J. Dale Multivalent group A streptococcal vaccine designed to optimize the immunogenicity of six tandem M protein fragments. , 1999, Vaccine.

[439]  J. Leckman,et al.  The immunobiology of Tourette's disorder, pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with Streptococcus, and related disorders: a way forward. , 2010, Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology.

[440]  Patchen Dellinger,et al.  Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[441]  R. A. Laurence,et al.  Epidemic of group A Streptococcus M/emm59 causing invasive disease in Canada. , 2010, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[442]  N. Barg Comparison of four antibiotics in a murine model of necrotizing cutaneous infections caused by toxigenic Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. , 1998, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[443]  J. Musser,et al.  Sequence variation in group A Streptococcus pili and association of pilus backbone types with lancefield T serotypes. , 2008, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[444]  B. Wiman,et al.  On the kinetics of the reaction between human antiplasmin and plasmin. , 1978, European journal of biochemistry.

[445]  S. Cui,et al.  Characteristics of Group A Streptococcus Strains Circulating during Scarlet Fever Epidemic, Beijing, China, 2011 , 2013, Emerging infectious diseases.

[446]  E. Kaplan,et al.  Significance of quantitative salivary cultures for group A and non-group A and non-group A beta-hemolytic streptococci in patients with pharyngitis and in their family contacts. , 1979, Pediatrics.

[447]  J. Zabriskie,et al.  Detection of nephritis strain-associated streptokinase by monoclonal antibodies. , 1991, Journal of medical microbiology.

[448]  L. Valinsky,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes emm and T types within a decade, 1996–2005: implications for epidemiology and future vaccines , 2009, Epidemiology and Infection.

[449]  K. Maitland,et al.  Bacteremia among children admitted to a rural hospital in Kenya. , 2005, The New England journal of medicine.

[450]  B. Shah,et al.  Epidemiology of group A streptococcal pharyngitis & impetigo: a cross-sectional & follow up study in a rural community of northern India. , 2009, The Indian journal of medical research.

[451]  J. Rapoport,et al.  The pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) subgroup: separating fact from fiction. , 2004, Pediatrics.

[452]  I. Margarit,et al.  Capturing host‐pathogen interactions by protein microarrays: identification of novel streptococcal proteins binding to human fibronectin, fibrinogen, and C4BP , 2009, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[453]  J. Tang,et al.  Crystal structure of the catalytic domain of human plasmin complexed with streptokinase. , 1998, Science.

[454]  J. Musser,et al.  CovS Simultaneously Activates and Inhibits the CovR-Mediated Repression of Distinct Subsets of Group A Streptococcus Virulence Factor-Encoding Genes , 2009, Infection and Immunity.

[455]  D. Bessen,et al.  Evolution of Transcription Regulatory Genes Is Linked to Niche Specialization in the Bacterial Pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes , 2005, Journal of bacteriology.

[456]  A. Ferguson,et al.  Gram-positive toxic shock syndromes. , 2009, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[457]  K. Mann,et al.  Multiple binding of type 3 streptococcal M protein to human fibrinogen, albumin and fibronectin. , 1993, FEMS immunology and medical microbiology.

[458]  R. Aisina,et al.  Structure and function of plasminogen/plasmin system , 2014, Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry.

[459]  L. Schouls,et al.  Epidemiological features of invasive and noninvasive group A streptococcal disease in the Netherlands, 1992–1996 , 2004, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[460]  S. Hamada,et al.  Assembly Mechanism of FCT Region Type 1 Pili in Serotype M6 Streptococcus pyogenes* , 2011, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[461]  M. Kaku,et al.  PROTEKT 1999-2000: a multicentre study of the antimicrobial susceptibility of respiratory tract pathogens in Japan. , 2005, International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases.

[462]  D. Keene,et al.  Identification of the First Prokaryotic Collagen Sequence Motif That Mediates Binding to Human Collagen Receptors, Integrins α2β1 and α11β1* , 2008, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[463]  G. Stollerman,et al.  The importance of the group a streptococcus capsule in the pathogenesis of human infections: a historical perspective. , 2008, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[464]  V. Nizet,et al.  M Protein and Hyaluronic Acid Capsule Are Essential for In Vivo Selection of covRS Mutations Characteristic of Invasive Serotype M1T1 Group A Streptococcus , 2010, mBio.

[465]  M. Boyle,et al.  Analysis of the interaction of group A streptococci with fibrinogen, streptokinase and plasminogen. , 1995, Microbial pathogenesis.

[466]  D. Stevens,et al.  Pregnancy-related group a streptococcal infections: temporal relationships between bacterial acquisition, infection onset, clinical findings, and outcome. , 2013, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[467]  M. Boyle,et al.  Interaction of a group A Streptococcus within human plasma results in assembly of a surface plasminogen activator that contributes to occupancy of surface plasmin-binding structures. , 1998, Microbial pathogenesis.

[468]  M. Wessels,et al.  Clinical practice. Streptococcal pharyngitis. , 2011, The New England journal of medicine.

[469]  M. Skurnik,et al.  A Novel Erythromycin Resistance Methylase Gene (ermTR) in Streptococcus pyogenes , 1998, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[470]  T. Proft,et al.  Functional analysis of Streptococcus pyogenes nuclease A (SpnA), a novel group A streptococcal virulence factor , 2011, Molecular microbiology.

[471]  B. Kobe,et al.  Structure-Informed Design of an Enzymatically Inactive Vaccine Component for Group A Streptococcus , 2013, mBio.

[472]  R. Lieber,et al.  Muscle injury, vimentin expression, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs predispose to cryptic group A streptococcal necrotizing infection. , 2008, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[473]  L. Björck,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria modulate membrane traffic in human neutrophils and selectively inhibit azurophilic granule fusion with phagosomes , 2006, Cellular microbiology.

[474]  B. Currie,et al.  Streptococcal necrotising fasciitis from diverse strains of Streptococcus pyogenes in tropical northern Australia: case series and comparison with the literature , 2004, BMC infectious diseases.

[475]  J. Marcum,et al.  Species specificity of streptokinase. , 1983, Comparative biochemistry and physiology. B, Comparative biochemistry.

[476]  T. Klaukka,et al.  Resistance to erythromycin in group A streptococci. , 1992, The New England journal of medicine.

[477]  L. Schlegel,et al.  Molecular Characterization of Streptococcus Pyogenes Isolates to investigate an outbreak of Puerperal Sepsis , 2005, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[478]  A. Schmidtchen,et al.  SIC, a Secreted Protein of Streptococcus pyogenesThat Inactivates Antibacterial Peptides* , 2003, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[479]  Masahira Hattori,et al.  Genome sequence of an M3 strain of Streptococcus pyogenes reveals a large-scale genomic rearrangement in invasive strains and new insights into phage evolution. , 2003, Genome research.

[480]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Influence of intranasal immunization with synthetic peptides corresponding to conserved epitopes of M protein on mucosal colonization by group A streptococci , 1988, Infection and immunity.

[481]  P. Schlievert,et al.  SEVERE GROUP A STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH A TOXIC SHOCK-LIFE SYNDROME AND SCARLET FEVER TOXIN , 1990 .

[482]  V. Burdett Tet(M)-promoted release of tetracycline from ribosomes is GTP dependent , 1996, Journal of bacteriology.

[483]  D. Caugant,et al.  Similar Superantigen Gene Profiles and Superantigen Activity in Norwegian Isolates of Invasive and Non‐Invasive Group A Streptococci , 2011, Scandinavian journal of immunology.

[484]  P. Cleary,et al.  Streptococcal C5a peptidase is a highly specific endopeptidase , 1992, Infection and immunity.

[485]  K. Berggård,et al.  Binding of human C4BP to the hypervariable region of M protein: a molecular mechanism of phagocytosis resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes , 2001, Molecular microbiology.

[486]  E. Bingen,et al.  Emergence of Macrolide-Resistant Streptococcus pyogenes Strains in French Children , 2004, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[487]  E. Baker,et al.  Roles of Minor Pilin Subunits Spy0125 and Spy0130 in the Serotype M1 Streptococcus pyogenes Strain SF370 , 2010, Journal of bacteriology.

[488]  M. Rohde,et al.  Co‐operative binding of human fibronectin to SfbI protein triggers streptococcal invasion into respiratory epithelial cells , 2000, Cellular microbiology.

[489]  C. Chen,et al.  Complete nucleotide sequence of the streptococcal C5a peptidase gene of Streptococcus pyogenes. , 1990, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[490]  M. Schenone,et al.  Structure and binding determinants of the recombinant kringle-2 domain of human plasminogen to an internal peptide from a group A Streptococcal surface protein. , 2001, Journal of molecular biology.

[491]  T. C. Barnett,et al.  Differential Recognition of Surface Proteins in Streptococcus pyogenes by Two Sortase Gene Homologs , 2002, Journal of bacteriology.

[492]  D. Bessen,et al.  Tetracycline Resistance in Group A Streptococci: Emergence on a Global Scale and Influence on Multiple-Drug Resistance , 2007, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[493]  R. Ellen,et al.  M Protein-Associated Adherence of Streptococcus pyogenes to Epithelial Surfaces: Prerequisite for Virulence , 1972, Infection and immunity.

[494]  J. Musser,et al.  A decade of molecular pathogenomic analysis of group A Streptococcus. , 2009, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[495]  L. Björck,et al.  M Protein, a Classical Bacterial Virulence Determinant, Forms Complexes with Fibrinogen that Induce Vascular Leakage , 2004, Cell.

[496]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Clinical and epidemiological features of group A streptococcal bacteraemia in a region with hyperendemic superficial streptococcal infection , 1999, Epidemiology and Infection.

[497]  P. Rudd,et al.  EndoS 2 is a unique and conserved enzyme of serotype M 49 group A Streptococcus that hydrolyses N-linked glycans on IgG and α 1-acid glycoprotein , 2016 .

[498]  M. Caparon,et al.  Identification of a gene that regulates expression of M protein, the major virulence determinant of group A streptococci. , 1987, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[499]  B. Kreikemeyer,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes M49 Plasminogen/Plasmin Binding Facilitates Keratinocyte Invasion via Integrin-Integrin-linked Kinase (ILK) Pathways and Protects from Macrophage Killing* , 2011, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[500]  Dwight R. Johnson,et al.  Immune response to group A streptococcal C5a peptidase in children: implications for vaccine development. , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[501]  G. S. Chhatwal,et al.  Identification of potential universal vaccine candidates against group A Streptococcus by using high throughput in silico and proteomics approach. , 2013, Journal of proteome research.

[502]  G. Bensi,et al.  Scavenger receptor gp340 aggregates group A streptococci by binding pili , 2008, Molecular microbiology.

[503]  A. Podbielski,et al.  The group A streptococcal virR49 gene controls expression of four structural vir regulon genes , 1995, Infection and immunity.

[504]  M. Wessels,et al.  Identification of csrR/csrS, a genetic locus that regulates hyaluronic acid capsule synthesis in group A Streptococcus , 1998, Molecular microbiology.

[505]  K. O'Brien,et al.  Epidemiology of invasive group a streptococcus disease in the United States, 1995-1999. , 2002, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[506]  A. Kamath,et al.  Molecular cloning and functional analysis of a novel macrolide‐resistance determinant, mefA, from Streptococcus pyogenes , 1996, Molecular microbiology.

[507]  B. Kreikemeyer,et al.  Immunological response mounted by Aboriginal Australians living in the Northern Territory of Australia against Streptococcus pyogenes serum opacity factor. , 2002, Microbiology.

[508]  J. Musser,et al.  M Types of Group A Streptococcal Isolates Submitted to the National Centre for Streptococcus (Canada) from 1993 to 1999 , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[509]  S. Bhakdi,et al.  Mechanism of membrane damage by streptolysin-O , 1985, Infection and immunity.

[510]  M. Wessels,et al.  Critical role of the group A streptococcal capsule in pharyngeal colonization and infection in mice. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[511]  R. Fässler,et al.  Roles of integrins and fibronectin in the entry of Streptococcus pyogenes into cells via protein F1 , 1998, Molecular microbiology.

[512]  P. Lachmann,et al.  Streptococcal Inhibitor of Complement Inhibits Two Additional Components of the Mucosal Innate Immune System: Secretory Leukocyte Proteinase Inhibitor and Lysozyme , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[513]  G Renzini,et al.  [Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus]. , 1974, Antibiotica.

[514]  D. Bessen,et al.  Genetic correlates of throat and skin isolates of group A streptococci. , 1996, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[515]  Ramy K. Aziz,et al.  DNase Expression Allows the Pathogen Group A Streptococcus to Escape Killing in Neutrophil Extracellular Traps , 2006, Current Biology.

[516]  C. Schalén,et al.  Protein F, a Fibronectin-binding Protein of Streptococcus Pyogenes, Also Binds Human Fibrinogen: Isolation of the Protein and Mapping of the Binding Region , 2022 .

[517]  V. Nizet,et al.  Molecular insight into invasive group A streptococcal disease , 2011, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[518]  H. Courtney,et al.  Cloning, sequencing, and expression of a fibronectin/fibrinogen-binding protein from group A streptococci , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[519]  T. Jansen,et al.  Reactive arthritis associated with group C and group G beta-hemolytic streptococci. , 1998, The Journal of rheumatology.

[520]  D. Crater,et al.  Hyaluronic Acid Synthesis Operon (has) Expression in Group A Streptococci (*) , 1995, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[521]  T. Jansen,et al.  Post‐streptococcal reactive arthritis: a clinical and serological description, revealing its distinction from acute rheumatic fever , 1999, Journal of internal medicine.

[522]  M. Cunningham Streptococcus and rheumatic fever , 2012, Current opinion in rheumatology.

[523]  D. Morens,et al.  Severe streptococcal infections in historical perspective. , 1992, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[524]  F. Guèye,et al.  Antimicrobial susceptibility of select respiratory tract pathogens in Dakar, Senegal. , 2009, Journal of infection in developing countries.

[525]  L. Guilherme,et al.  Rheumatic heart disease: mediation by complex immune events. , 2011, Advances in clinical chemistry.

[526]  R. Kennedy,et al.  Bacterial determinants of persistent throat colonization and the associated immune response in a primate model of human group A streptococcal pharyngeal infection , 2000, Cellular microbiology.

[527]  V. Nizet,et al.  A Conserved UDP-Glucose Dehydrogenase Encoded outside the hasABC Operon Contributes to Capsule Biogenesis in Group A Streptococcus , 2012, Journal of bacteriology.

[528]  L. Björck,et al.  Severe streptococcal infection is associated with M protein‐induced platelet activation and thrombus formation , 2007, Molecular microbiology.

[529]  L. Björck,et al.  Protein SIC, a Novel Extracellular Protein of Streptococcus pyogenes Interfering with Complement Function (*) , 1996, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[530]  K. S. Sriprakash,et al.  Seroprevalence of Streptococcal Inhibitor of Complement (SIC) suggests association of streptococcal infection with chronic kidney disease , 2013, BMC Nephrology.

[531]  I. Brook The role of beta-lactamase-producing bacteria in the persistence of streptococcal tonsillar infection. , 1984, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[532]  Armanda Pugnaloni,et al.  Φm46.1, the Main Streptococcus pyogenes Element Carrying mef(A) and tet(O) Genes , 2009, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[533]  J. Carapetis,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes recruits collagen via surface‐bound fibronectin: a novel colonization and immune evasion mechanism , 2003, Molecular microbiology.

[534]  A. Bisno Group A streptococcal infections and acute rheumatic fever. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[535]  Ruihong Zeng,et al.  Similar Ability of FbaA with M Protein to Elicit Protective Immunity Against Group A Streptococcus Challenge in Mice , 2009, Cellular and Molecular Immunology.

[536]  E. Wald,et al.  Erythromycin-resistant group A streptococci in schoolchildren in Pittsburgh. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[537]  L. Van Melderen,et al.  Genetic diversity of Group A Streptococcus M protein: implications for typing and vaccine development. , 2008, Vaccine.

[538]  Koichi Matsumoto,et al.  Nephritis-associated plasmin receptor and acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis: characterization of the antigen and associated immune response. , 2004, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN.

[539]  H. Sakata,et al.  Epidemiological characterization of Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from patients with multiple onsets of pharyngitis. , 2011, FEMS microbiology letters.

[540]  P. Bernard Management of common bacterial infections of the skin , 2008, Current opinion in infectious diseases.

[541]  M. Levy,et al.  Tonsillopharyngitis caused by foodborne group A streptococcus: a prison-based outbreak. , 2003, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[542]  A. Toubert,et al.  Mimicry in Recognition of Cardiac Myosin Peptides by Heart-Intralesional T Cell Clones from Rheumatic Heart Disease1 , 2006, The Journal of Immunology.

[543]  J. Carapetis,et al.  The epidemiology of invasive group A streptococcal disease in Victoria, Australia , 2007, The Medical journal of Australia.

[544]  Edward A Graviss,et al.  Genome-Wide Analysis of Group A Streptococci Reveals a Mutation That Modulates Global Phenotype and Disease Specificity , 2006, PLoS pathogens.

[545]  G. Edelman,et al.  Protein H‐‐a bacterial surface protein with affinity for both immunoglobulin and fibronectin type III domains. , 1995, The EMBO journal.

[546]  P. Weigel,et al.  Molecular cloning, identification, and sequence of the hyaluronan synthase gene from group A Streptococcus pyogenes. , 1993, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[547]  Debra E. Bessen,et al.  Natural Selection and Evolution of Streptococcal Virulence Genes Involved in Tissue-Specific Adaptations , 2004, Journal of bacteriology.

[548]  V. Nizet,et al.  d-Alanylation of Teichoic Acids Promotes Group A Streptococcus Antimicrobial Peptide Resistance, Neutrophil Survival, and Epithelial Cell Invasion , 2005, Journal of bacteriology.

[549]  E. Dedyukhina,et al.  Growth-Coupled Lipid Synthesis in Mortierella alpina LPM 301, a Producer of Arachidonic Acid , 2002, Microbiology.

[550]  J. Zabriskie,et al.  Group A streptococcus (GAS) carbohydrate as an immunogen for protection against GAS infection. , 2006, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[551]  D. Tilley,et al.  Outbreak of Group A beta hemolytic Streptococcus pharyngitis in a Peruvian military facility, April 2012. , 2013, MSMR.

[552]  R. Kaul,et al.  Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome--a comparative observational study. The Canadian Streptococcal Study Group. , 1999, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[553]  J. Goldberg,et al.  Hyaluronic acid capsule is a virulence factor for mucoid group A streptococci. , 1991, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[554]  V. Nizet,et al.  A Key Role for the Urokinase Plasminogen Activator (uPA) in Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infection , 2013, PLoS pathogens.

[555]  G. Stollerman Nephritogenic and rheumatogenic group A streptococci. , 1969, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[556]  D. Pavia,et al.  Effect of four-week treatment with oxitropium bromide on lung mucociliary clearance in patients with chronic bronchitis or asthma. , 1989, Respiration; international review of thoracic diseases.

[557]  V. Nizet,et al.  Point Mutation in the Group B Streptococcal pbp2x Gene Conferring Decreased Susceptibility to β-Lactam Antibiotics , 2008, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[558]  M. Dowton,et al.  The Plasminogen-Binding Group A Streptococcal M Protein-Related Protein Prp Binds Plasminogen via Arginine and Histidine Residues , 2006, Journal of bacteriology.

[559]  V. Nizet,et al.  Streptococcal collagen‐like protein A and general stress protein 24 are immunomodulating virulence factors of group A Streptococcus , 2013, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[560]  J. Musser,et al.  Virulence control in group A Streptococcus by a two-component gene regulatory system: Global expression profiling and in vivo infection modeling , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[561]  E. Lau,et al.  Scarlet Fever Outbreak, Hong Kong, 2011 , 2012, Emerging infectious diseases.

[562]  E. Kaplan,et al.  Rheumatic fever-associated Streptococcus pyogenes isolates aggregate collagen. , 2003, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[563]  L. Guilherme,et al.  Molecular mimicry in the autoimmune pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease , 2006, Autoimmunity.

[564]  J. Musser,et al.  Vaccination with streptococcal extracellular cysteine protease (interleukin-1 beta convertase) protects mice against challenge with heterologous group A streptococci. , 1994, Microbial pathogenesis.

[565]  Clayton C. Caswell,et al.  Scl1, the multifunctional adhesin of group A Streptococcus, selectively binds cellular fibronectin and laminin, and mediates pathogen internalization by human cells. , 2010, FEMS microbiology letters.

[566]  J. Musser,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes pili promote pharyngeal cell adhesion and biofilm formation , 2007, Molecular microbiology.

[567]  G. Tyrrell,et al.  Binding of group B streptococcal phosphoglycerate kinase to plasminogen and actin. , 2011, Microbial pathogenesis.

[568]  Michal J. Nagiec,et al.  Genome sequence of a serotype M28 strain of group a streptococcus: potential new insights into puerperal sepsis and bacterial disease specificity. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[569]  J. Musser,et al.  Insight of Host Immune Evasion Mediated by Two Variants of Group A Streptococcus Mac Protein* , 2004, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[570]  S.K.F. de Oliveira PANDAS: uma nova doença? , 2007 .

[571]  H. Vogel,et al.  Diversity of antimicrobial peptides and their mechanisms of action. , 1999, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[572]  Haruo Watanabe,et al.  Highly Frequent Mutations in Negative Regulators of Multiple Virulence Genes in Group A Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome Isolates , 2010, PLoS pathogens.

[573]  A. Whatmore Streptococcus pyogenes sclB encodes a putative hypervariable surface protein with a collagen-like repetitive structure. , 2001, Microbiology.

[574]  J. Musser,et al.  Human Disease Isolates of Serotype M4 and M22 Group A Streptococcus Lack Genes Required for Hyaluronic Acid Capsule Biosynthesis , 2012, mBio.

[575]  R. Tanz,et al.  Temporal changes in streptococcal M protein types and the near-disappearance of acute rheumatic fever in the United States , 2006 .

[576]  J. Harley,et al.  Human monoclonal antibodies reactive with antigens of the group A Streptococcus and human heart. , 1988, Journal of immunology.

[577]  M. Juliano,et al.  Towards a Vaccine Against Rheumatic Fever , 2006, Clinical & developmental immunology.

[578]  D. Stevens,et al.  Vascular dysfunction and ischemic destruction of tissue in Streptococcus pyogenes infection: the role of streptolysin O-induced platelet/neutrophil complexes. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[579]  H. Smith,et al.  Invasive group A streptococcal disease in children in Queensland , 2010, Epidemiology and Infection.

[580]  A. Cheng,et al.  Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis in the Northern Territory of Australia: a review of 16 years data and comparison with the literature. , 2011, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[581]  U. Sjöbring,et al.  PAM, a novel plasminogen-binding protein from Streptococcus pyogenes. , 1993, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[582]  D. Stevens,et al.  Serious group a streptococcal infections. , 2013, The Medical clinics of North America.

[583]  A. Norrby-Teglund,et al.  Getting under the skin: the immunopathogenesis of Streptococcus pyogenes deep tissue infections. , 2010, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[584]  Association of the shuffling of Streptococcus pyogenes clones and the fluctuation of scarlet fever cases between 2000 and 2006 in central Taiwan , 2009, BMC Microbiology.

[585]  Ramy K. Aziz,et al.  Rise and Persistence of Global M1T1 Clone of Streptococcus pyogenes , 2008, Emerging infectious diseases.

[586]  J. Atkinson,et al.  Engagement of CD46 and alpha5beta1 integrin by group A streptococci is required for efficient invasion of epithelial cells. , 2005, Cellular microbiology.

[587]  H. Goossens,et al.  Multiplex PCR for Simultaneous Detection of Macrolide and Tetracycline Resistance Determinants in Streptococci , 2005, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[588]  The extracellular hyaluronidase gene (hylA) of Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2000, FEMS microbiology letters.

[589]  T. C. Barnett,et al.  A Novel Sortase, SrtC2, from Streptococcus pyogenes Anchors a Surface Protein Containing a QVPTGV Motif to the Cell Wall , 2004, Journal of bacteriology.

[590]  A. Hofmann,et al.  Structural optimisation of a conformational epitope improves antigenicity when expressed as a recombinant fusion protein. , 2009, Vaccine.

[591]  P. Schreckenberger,et al.  An intrinsic pattern of reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones in pediatric isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2008, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[592]  D. Xiao,et al.  Genetic Analysis of Group A Streptococcus Isolates Recovered during Acute Glomerulonephritis Outbreaks in Guizhou Province of China , 2009, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[593]  Bernd Kreikemeyer,et al.  Streptococcus pyogenes Collagen Type I-binding Cpa Surface Protein , 2005, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[594]  V. Nizet,et al.  Plasmin(ogen) Acquisition by Group A Streptococcus Protects against C3b-Mediated Neutrophil Killing , 2013, Journal of Innate Immunity.

[595]  Elise R. Hondorp,et al.  PTS phosphorylation of Mga modulates regulon expression and virulence in the group A streptococcus , 2013, Molecular microbiology.

[596]  B. Schwartz,et al.  Severe group a streptococcal soft-tissue infections in Ontario: 1992-1996. , 2002, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[597]  C. Eaton,et al.  Prevention of rheumatic fever and diagnosis and treatment of acute Streptococcal pharyngitis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, the Interdisciplinary Council , 2009, Circulation.

[598]  Haruo Watanabe,et al.  Incompetence of Neutrophils to Invasive Group A streptococcus Is Attributed to Induction of Plural Virulence Factors by Dysfunction of a Regulator , 2008, PloS one.

[599]  Kevin F. Jones,et al.  Mucosal Vaccine Made from Live, Recombinant Lactococcus lactis Protects Mice against Pharyngeal Infection with Streptococcus pyogenes , 2004, Infection and Immunity.

[600]  J. Goldberg,et al.  Effects on virulence of mutations in a locus essential for hyaluronic acid capsule expression in group A streptococci , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[601]  E. Wald,et al.  Group A Streptococci Among School-Aged Children: Clinical Characteristics and the Carrier State , 2004, Pediatrics.

[602]  Malak Kotb,et al.  DNase Sda1 provides selection pressure for a switch to invasive group A streptococcal infection , 2007, Nature Medicine.

[603]  S. Sriskandan,et al.  The immunology of sepsis , 2008, The Journal of pathology.

[604]  M. Pichichero,et al.  Bacterial eradication rates with shortened courses of 2nd- and 3rd-generation cephalosporins versus 10 days of penicillin for treatment of group A streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis in adults. , 2007, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[605]  E. Kaplan,et al.  Reduced ability of penicillin to eradicate ingested group A streptococci from epithelial cells: clinical and pathogenetic implications. , 2006, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[606]  D. Jackson,et al.  New multi-determinant strategy for a group A streptococcal vaccine designed for the Australian Aboriginal population , 2000, Nature Medicine.

[607]  S. Hamada,et al.  Autophagy Defends Cells Against Invading Group A Streptococcus , 2004, Science.

[608]  P. Schlievert,et al.  Clonal basis for resurgence of serious Streptococcus pyogenes disease in the 1980s , 1992, The Lancet.

[609]  M. Reddish,et al.  Immunogenicity of a 26-Valent Group A Streptococcal Vaccine , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[610]  R. Olsen,et al.  Genomic Analysis of emm59 Group A Streptococcus Invasive Strains, United States , 2012, Emerging infectious diseases.

[611]  M. Vecchi,et al.  Genetic Elements Carrying erm(B) in Streptococcus pyogenes and Association with tet(M) Tetracycline Resistance Gene , 2007, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[612]  J. Benach,et al.  Use of the plasminogen activation system by microorganisms. , 1999, The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine.

[613]  E. Lindahl,et al.  Isolated Hypervariable Regions Derived from Streptococcal M Proteins Specifically Bind Human C4b-Binding Protein: Implications for Antigenic Variation1 , 2001, The Journal of Immunology.

[614]  V. Nizet,et al.  A Naturally Occurring Mutation in ropB Suppresses SpeB Expression and Reduces M1T1 Group A Streptococcal Systemic Virulence , 2008, PloS one.

[615]  M. Rohde,et al.  Identification of a Streptococcal Octapeptide Motif Involved in Acute Rheumatic Fever* , 2007, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[616]  J. Mcghee,et al.  Chemical properties and immunobiological activities of streptococcal lipoteichoic acids. , 1985, Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie, und Hygiene. Series A, Medical microbiology, infectious diseases, virology, parasitology.

[617]  L. Espinoza,et al.  Poststreptococcal Reactive Arthritis in Adults:: Long-Term Follow-Up , 2001, The American journal of the medical sciences.

[618]  B. Henriques-Normark,et al.  Clinical and Microbiological Characteristics of Severe Streptococcus pyogenes Disease in Europe , 2009, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[619]  M. Kotb,et al.  HLA Transgenic Mice Provide Evidence for a Direct and Dominant Role of HLA Class II Variation in Modulating the Severity of Streptococcal Sepsis1 , 2007, The Journal of Immunology.

[620]  K. Timmis,et al.  Domain structure and conserved epitopes of Sfb protein, the fibronectin‐binding adhesin of Streptococcus pyogenes , 1994, Molecular microbiology.