Adolescent smoking trajectories and nicotine dependence.

The present study correlates empirically constructed prospective adolescent smoking trajectories with indicators of nicotine dependence assessed in adolescence and in adulthood. Excluding individuals who reported no smoking during repeat assessment (nonadopters), we identified five smoking trajectory groups: experimenters (n=116, 48.5%), late increasers (n=39, 16.3%), early increasers (n=37, 15.5%), quitters (n=22, 9.2%), and persistent smokers (n=25, 10.5%). Higher frequency of nicotine dependence symptoms in adolescence occurred in the quitters and persistent smokers groups, who smoked at higher levels relative to the experimenters, late increasers, and early increasers groups, who reported a similar frequency of nicotine dependence symptoms and smoked at low levels. Lifetime nicotine dependence was assessed in adulthood in lifetime daily smokers using the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and the Nicotine Dependence Scale (NDS). Lifetime FTND levels were similar across trajectory groups. Relative to experimenters, all remaining smoking trajectory groups had higher NDS levels that were similar to one another. These results suggest that higher levels of adolescent nicotine dependence were associated with heavier smoking trajectory groups, and that regardless of trajectory group membership, smoking more than a few cigarettes per week throughout adolescence resulted in similar levels of lifetime nicotine dependence as measured by the FTND and NDS.

[1]  G. Schwarz Estimating the Dimension of a Model , 1978 .

[2]  K. Lynch,et al.  Genetic correlations between smoking initiation and smoking behaviors in a twin sample. , 2006, Addictive behaviors.

[3]  Terry E. Duncan,et al.  Examining developmental trajectories in adolescent alcohol use using piecewise growth mixture modeling analysis. , 2001, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[4]  P K Wood,et al.  Trajectories of concurrent substance use disorders: a developmental, typological approach to comorbidity. , 2000, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[5]  Denise L Haynie,et al.  Psychosocial predictors of smoking trajectories during middle and high school. , 2005, Addiction.

[6]  Clark C. Presson,et al.  The Natural History of Cigarette Smoking: Predicting Young-Adult Smoking Outcomes From Adolescent Smoking Patterns , 1990 .

[7]  K. Jackson,et al.  Conjoint developmental trajectories of young adult alcohol and tobacco use. , 2005, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[8]  N. Breslau,et al.  Predicting smoking cessation and major depression in nicotine-dependent smokers. , 2000, American journal of public health.

[9]  S. Buyske,et al.  Parental modeling and parenting behavior effects on offspring alcohol and cigarette use. A growth curve analysis. , 2000, Journal of substance abuse.

[10]  N. Martin,et al.  Defining nicotine dependence for genetic research: evidence from Australian twins , 2004, Psychological Medicine.

[11]  D. Nagin,et al.  Racial differences in trajectories of cigarette use. , 2004, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[12]  N. Martin,et al.  Genetic and Social Determinants of Initiation and Age at Onset of Smoking in Australian Twins , 1999, Behavior genetics.

[13]  D S Nagin,et al.  Analyzing developmental trajectories of distinct but related behaviors: a group-based method. , 2001, Psychological methods.

[14]  H. Feiler,et al.  Environmental and genetic determinants of tobacco use: methodology for a multidisciplinary, longitudinal family-based investigation. , 2003, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[15]  Dc Washington Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed. , 1994 .

[16]  J. Brook,et al.  Peer and parental influences on longitudinal trajectories of smoking among African Americans and Puerto Ricans. , 2006, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[17]  Maria Orlando,et al.  Developmental trajectories of cigarette smoking and their correlates from early adolescence to young adulthood. , 2004, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[18]  H. Javitz,et al.  Bupropion SR and counseling for smoking cessation in actual practice: predictors of outcome. , 2003, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[19]  T V Perneger,et al.  Validity of the Fagerström test for nicotine dependence and of the Heaviness of Smoking Index among relatively light smokers. , 1999, Addiction.

[20]  Suzanne M. Miller,et al.  Handbook of developmental psychopathology, 2nd ed. , 2000 .

[21]  C C Presson,et al.  The natural history of cigarette smoking from adolescence to adulthood in a midwestern community sample: multiple trajectories and their psychosocial correlates. , 2000, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[22]  B. Flay,et al.  Identifying and predicting adolescent smokers' developmental trajectories. , 2004, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[23]  S. Soldz,et al.  Pathways through adolescent smoking: a 7-year longitudinal grouping analysis. , 2002, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[24]  I. Berlin,et al.  Tobacco smoking trajectory and associated ethnic differences among adolescent smokers seeking cessation treatment. , 2004, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[25]  P. Sullivan,et al.  A twin study of genetic and environmental influences on tobacco initiation, regular tobacco use and nicotine dependence , 2004, Psychological Medicine.

[26]  K. Zapert,et al.  Patterns of Substance Use in Early Through Late Adolescence , 2002, American journal of community psychology.

[27]  R. Kessler,et al.  Nicotine dependence in the United States: prevalence, trends, and smoking persistence. , 2001, Archives of general psychiatry.

[28]  N. Rigotti,et al.  Measuring the loss of autonomy over nicotine use in adolescents: the DANDY (Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youths) study. , 2002, Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine.

[29]  Daniel S. Nagin,et al.  Analyzing developmental trajectories: A semiparametric, group-based approach , 1999 .

[30]  K. Roeder,et al.  A SAS Procedure Based on Mixture Models for Estimating Developmental Trajectories , 2001 .

[31]  C C Presson,et al.  The natural history of cigarette smoking from adolescence to adulthood: demographic predictors of continuity and change. , 1996, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[32]  J. O'Loughlin,et al.  Smoking trajectories of adolescent novice smokers in a longitudinal study of tobacco use. , 2005, Annals of epidemiology.

[33]  L. Kozlowski,et al.  The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire. , 1991, British journal of addiction.

[34]  Robert J Pandina,et al.  Developmental trajectories of cigarette use from early adolescence into young adulthood. , 2002, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[35]  K. Bucholz,et al.  Common genetic vulnerability for nicotine and alcohol dependence in men. , 1999, Archives of general psychiatry.

[36]  Gonneke Willemsen,et al.  Heritability of Smoking Initiation and Nicotine Dependence , 2005, Behavior genetics.

[37]  N. Sherwood,et al.  Age of initiation, smoking patterns, and risk in a population of working adults. , 1999, Preventive medicine.

[38]  B R Flay,et al.  Identifying trajectories of adolescent smoking: an application of latent growth mixture modeling. , 2001, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[39]  J. Audrain-McGovern,et al.  Identifying and characterizing adolescent smoking trajectories. , 2004, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[40]  J. Hewitt,et al.  Genes, time to first cigarette and nicotine dependence in a general population sample of young adults. , 2007, Addiction.

[41]  S. Khuder,et al.  Age at smoking onset and its effect on smoking cessation. , 1999, Addictive behaviors.

[42]  F. Vitaro,et al.  Differential contribution of parents and friends to smoking trajectories during adolescence. , 2004, Addictive behaviors.