Review of glucocorticoid therapy in horses. Part 1: Pharmacology

Summary This article is the first in a three part review series examining glucocorticoid use in treatment of medical conditions and musculoskeletal disorders of the horse. This article provides a review of the structure and function of corticosteroids together with a summary of the available literature pertaining to the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and indications for use of, and adverse effects associated with, glucocorticoids currently available for use by equine veterinarians.

[1]  M. Hedeland,et al.  Plasma concentration-dependent suppression of endogenous hydrocortisone in the horse after intramuscular administration of dexamethasone-21-isonicotinate. , 2015, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[2]  M. Ceresia,et al.  Clinical pharmacology of the respiratory system , 2014 .

[3]  B. Bentz Clinical pharmacology of the equine musculoskeletal system , 2014 .

[4]  S. Waterman,et al.  Drug and medication control programs in equine athletes , 2014 .

[5]  R. C. Whitton,et al.  Musculoskeletal injury rates in Thoroughbred racehorses following local corticosteroid injection. , 2014, Veterinary journal.

[6]  M. Brooks,et al.  Hemorrhage and blood loss-induced anemia associated with an acquired coagulation factor VIII inhibitor in a Thoroughbred mare. , 2014, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[7]  L. Filaretova,et al.  From gastroprotective to ulcerogenic effects of glucocorticoids: role of long-term glucocorticoid action. , 2014, Current pharmaceutical design.

[8]  B. McGorum,et al.  Short-term incubation of equine laminar veins with cortisol and insulin alters contractility in vitro: possible implications for the pathogenesis of equine laminitis. , 2013, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[9]  E. Mccandless,et al.  Hydrocortisone inhibits IFN-γ production in equine, ovine, and bovine PBMCs. , 2013, Veterinary immunology and immunopathology.

[10]  R. Boston,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone following intra-articular, intravenous, intramuscular, and oral administration in horses and its effects on endogenous hydrocortisone. , 2013, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[11]  N. E. Robinson,et al.  Glucocorticoid therapy and the risk of equine laminitis , 2013 .

[12]  M. M. Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan,et al.  Equine sarcoidosis. , 2013, The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice.

[13]  B. Brorsen,et al.  Circadian and circannual rhythms of cortisol, ACTH, and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in healthy horses. , 2012, Domestic animal endocrinology.

[14]  P. Nathanielsz,et al.  Growth and insulin dynamics in two generations of female offspring of mothers receiving a single course of synthetic glucocorticoids. , 2012, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[15]  M. Phelps,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of methylprednisolone acetate after intra-articular administration and subsequent suppression of endogenous hydrocortisone secretion in exercising horses. , 2012, American journal of veterinary research.

[16]  J. Newnham,et al.  The Effects of Dexamethasone Treatment in Early Gestation on Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Responses and Gene Expression at 7 Months of Postnatal Age in Sheep , 2012, Reproductive Sciences.

[17]  C. Kawcak,et al.  Current joint therapy usage in equine practice: a survey of veterinarians 2009. , 2011, Equine veterinary journal.

[18]  R. Boston,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of intra-articular, intravenous, and intramuscular administration of triamcinolone acetonide and its effect on endogenous plasma hydrocortisone and cortisone concentrations in horses. , 2011, American journal of veterinary research.

[19]  M. Vandenplas,et al.  Effects of Low-Dose Hydrocortisone Therapy on Immune Function in Neonatal Horses , 2011, Pediatric Research.

[20]  M. Kölling,et al.  Maternal dexamethasone treatment in late gestation induces precocious fetal maturation and delivery in healthy Thoroughbred mares. , 2011, Equine veterinary journal.

[21]  G. Beauchamp,et al.  Effect of long-term fluticasone treatment on immune function in horses with heaves. , 2011, Journal of veterinary internal medicine.

[22]  S. Bailey Corticosteroid-associated laminitis. , 2010, The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice.

[23]  B. Kukanich,et al.  Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of dexamethasone after oral administration in apparently healthy horses. , 2010, American journal of veterinary research.

[24]  R. Ferris,et al.  The effects of dexamethasone and prednisolone on pituitary and ovarian function in the mare. , 2010, Equine veterinary journal.

[25]  G. Beauchamp,et al.  Efficacy of oral prednisolone and dexamethasone in horses with recurrent airway obstruction in the presence of continuous antigen exposure. , 2010, Equine veterinary journal.

[26]  P. Clegg,et al.  MMP‐mediated collagen breakdown induced by activated protein C in equine cartilage is reduced by corticosteroids , 2010, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[27]  M. McCluskey,et al.  Clinical use of triamcinolone acetonide in the horse (205 cases) and the incidence of glucocorticoid‐induced laminitis associated with its use , 2010 .

[28]  H. Pondenis,et al.  Effects of methylprednisolone acetate and glucosamine on proteoglycan production by equine chondrocytes in vitro. , 2008, American journal of veterinary research.

[29]  C. Pollitt,et al.  Pharmacokinetics and metabolic effects of triamcinolone acetonide and their possible relationships to glucocorticoid-induced laminitis in horses: Triamcinolone pharmacokinetics and metabolic effects in horses , 2008 .

[30]  S. Weisbrode,et al.  Effects of triamcinolone acetonide, sodium hyaluronate, amikacin sulfate, and mepivacaine hydrochloride, alone and in combination, on morphology and matrix composition of lipopolysaccharide-challenged and unchallenged equine articular cartilage explants. , 2008, American journal of veterinary research.

[31]  W. D. Wilson,et al.  Idiopathic chronic eosinophilic pneumonia in 7 horses. , 2008, Journal of veterinary internal medicine.

[32]  D. Mellor,et al.  Retrospective study of the effect of intra-articular treatment of osteoarthritis of the distal tarsal joints in 51 horses , 2007, Veterinary Record.

[33]  D. Hommes,et al.  Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid action and selective glucocorticoid receptor agonists , 2007, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology.

[34]  H. Dutton The corticosteroid laminitis story: 1. Duty of care. , 2007, Equine veterinary journal.

[35]  A. Bathe The corticosteroid laminitis story: 3. The clinician's viewpoint. , 2007, Equine veterinary journal.

[36]  S. Bailey,et al.  The corticosteroid laminitis story: 2. Science of if, when and how. , 2007, Equine veterinary journal.

[37]  G. Abraham,et al.  Comparison of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis susceptibility upon single-dose i.m. depot versus long-acting i.v. triamcinolone acetonide therapy: a direct pharmacokinetic correlation. , 2006, The Journal of endocrinology.

[38]  J. Fink-Gremmels,et al.  The Effect of Aerosolized and Intravenously Administered Clenbuterol and Aerosolized Fluticasone Propionate on Horses Challenged with Aspergillus fumigatus Antigen , 2006, Veterinary Research Communications.

[39]  B. Barr Infiltrative intestinal disease. , 2006, The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice.

[40]  A. Nixon,et al.  Medical treatment of osteoarthritis in the horse - a review. , 2006, Veterinary journal.

[41]  L. Glickman,et al.  Randomized, controlled study of inhaled fluticasone propionate, oral administration of prednisone, and environmental management of horses with recurrent airway obstruction. , 2005, American journal of veterinary research.

[42]  M. Blaik,et al.  Quantitative comparison of three commonly used treatments for navicular syndrome in horses. , 2005, American journal of veterinary research.

[43]  D. W. Hayden,et al.  Infarctive purpura hemorrhagica in five horses. , 2005, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[44]  R. Boston,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone with pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model of the effect of dexamethasone on endogenous hydrocortisone and cortisone in the horse. , 2005, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[45]  P. Constable,et al.  Effects of sodium hyaluronate and methylprednisolone acetate on proteoglycan synthesis in equine articular cartilage explants. , 2005, American journal of veterinary research.

[46]  D. Frisbie,et al.  A dose titration of triamcinolone acetonide on insulin-like growth factor-1 and interleukin-1-conditioned equine cartilage explants. , 2010, Equine veterinary journal.

[47]  J. Fink-Gremmels,et al.  Biological availability of inhaled fluticasone propionate in horses , 2004, Veterinary Record.

[48]  Yonghoon Lee,et al.  Glucocorticoid-induced laminitis with hepatopathy in a Thoroughbred filly. , 2004, Journal of veterinary science.

[49]  J. Bertone Chapter 1 – Basic principles of veterinary pharmacology for equine practitioners , 2004 .

[50]  J. Sojka,et al.  Chapter 5 – Drugs acting on the endocrine system , 2004 .

[51]  S. Stanley,et al.  Prednisone per os is likely to have limited efficacy in horses. , 2010, Equine veterinary journal.

[52]  N. E. Robinson,et al.  Efficacy of three corticosteroids for the treatment of heaves. , 2010, Equine veterinary journal.

[53]  S. Frean,et al.  Effects of anti-arthritic drugs on proteoglycan synthesis by equine cartilage. , 2002, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[54]  A. Lindholm,et al.  Clinical effects of betamethasone and hyaluronan, and of defocalized carbon dioxide laser treatment on traumatic arthritis in the fetlock joints of horses. , 2002, Journal of veterinary medicine. A, Physiology, pathology, clinical medicine.

[55]  R. MacKay,et al.  Cytokine induction in pulmonary airways of horses with heaves and effect of therapy with inhaled fluticasone propionate. , 2002, Veterinary immunology and immunopathology.

[56]  N. E. Robinson,et al.  Environment and prednisone interactions in the treatment of recurrent airway obstruction (heaves). , 2010, Equine veterinary journal.

[57]  M. Murphy,et al.  Effects of dexamethasone on development of immunoglobulin G subclass responses following vaccination of horses. , 2000, American journal of veterinary research.

[58]  C. Pollitt,et al.  Pharmacokinetics and metabolic effects of triamcinolone acetonide and their possible relationships to glucocorticoid-induced laminitis in horses. , 2000, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[59]  B. Rush,et al.  Pulmonary function and adrenal gland suppression with incremental doses of aerosolized beclomethasone dipropionate in horses with recurrent airway obstruction. , 2000, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[60]  B. Rush,et al.  Serum cortisol concentrations in response to incremental doses of inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate. , 1999, Equine veterinary journal.

[61]  B. Rush,et al.  Pulmonary function in horses with recurrent airway obstruction after aerosol and parenteral administration of beclomethasone dipropionate and dexamethasone, respectively. , 1998, American journal of veterinary research.

[62]  B. Rush,et al.  Alteration in adrenocortical function in horses with recurrent airway obstruction after aerosol and parenteral administration of beclomethasone dipropionate and dexamethasone, respectively. , 1998, American journal of veterinary research.

[63]  A. Vrins,et al.  Effects of inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate on respiratory function in horses with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). , 1998, Equine veterinary journal.

[64]  K A Athanasiou,et al.  The effects of intra-articular methylprednisolone and exercise on the mechanical properties of articular cartilage in the horse. , 1998, Osteoarthritis and cartilage.

[65]  C. Kawcak,et al.  Effects of triamcinolone acetonide on an in vivo equine osteochondral fragment exercise model. , 1997, Equine veterinary journal.

[66]  P. Toutain,et al.  Cortisol concentrations in post competition horse urine: a French and British survey. , 1997, Equine veterinary journal.

[67]  S. Gross,et al.  Factors associated with gastric lesions in thoroughbred racehorses. , 1996, Equine veterinary journal.

[68]  R. Jensen,et al.  The pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone in the thoroughbred racehorse. , 1996, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[69]  M. Alvinerie,et al.  Interspecies variations of corticosteroid-binding globulin parameters. , 1996, Domestic animal endocrinology.

[70]  B. Powers,et al.  Effect of betamethasone and exercise on equine carpal joints with osteochondral fragments. , 1994, Veterinary surgery : VS.

[71]  W. Davis,et al.  Corticosteroid immunosuppression and monoclonal antibody-mediated CD5+ T lymphocyte depletion in normal and equine infectious anaemia virus-carrier horses. , 1994, The Journal of general virology.

[72]  S. Alexander,et al.  Factors affecting the circadian rhythm in plasma cortisol concentrations in the horse. , 1994, Domestic animal endocrinology.

[73]  T. Tobin,et al.  Clinical use and characteristics of the corticosteroids. , 1993, The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice.

[74]  A. Vrins,et al.  Effects of triamcinolone acetonide on pulmonary function and bronchoalveolar lavage cytologic features in horses with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 1993, American journal of veterinary research.

[75]  T. Mair Recurrent diarrhoea in aged ponies associated with larval cyathostomiasis. , 1993, Equine veterinary journal.

[76]  C. L. Chen,et al.  Synovial and serum levels of triamcinolone following intra-articular administration of triamcinolone acetonide in the horse. , 1992, Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics.

[77]  N. Cohen,et al.  Steroid hepatopathy in a horse with glucocorticoid-induced hyperadrenocorticism. , 1992, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[78]  T. Mair,et al.  Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia in eight horses , 1990, Veterinary Record.

[79]  J. Fink-Gremmels,et al.  Action of dexamethasone in an equine model of acute non-immune inflammation. , 1990, Research in veterinary science.

[80]  M. Alvinerie,et al.  Prednisolone binding to plasma proteins in domestic species. , 1988, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[81]  M. Alvinerie,et al.  Hydrocortisone secretion: production rate and pulse characterization by numerical deconvolution. , 1988, The American journal of physiology.

[82]  L. Krook,et al.  Fractures in Thoroughbred race horses. , 1988, The Cornell veterinarian.

[83]  M. Alvinerie,et al.  Diurnal and episodic variations of plasma hydrocortisone concentrations in horses. , 1988, Domestic animal endocrinology.

[84]  Johnson Ma,et al.  Effects of multiple intramuscular injections and doses of dexamethasone on plasma cortisol concentrations and adrenal responses to ACTH in horses. , 1985 .

[85]  G. Bottoms,et al.  Effects of multiple intramuscular injections and doses of dexamethasone on plasma cortisol concentrations and adrenal responses to ACTH in horses. , 1985, American journal of veterinary research.

[86]  J. D. Baggot,et al.  Dexamethasone and prednisolone in the horse: pharmacokinetics and action on the adrenal gland. , 1984, American journal of veterinary research.

[87]  H. E. Gray,et al.  Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids: Actions on Brain and Behavior , 1984 .

[88]  H. Schryver,et al.  Morphologic and biochemical changes in cartilage of foals treated with dexamethasone. , 1983, The Cornell veterinarian.

[89]  J. Ousey,et al.  Changes in blood neutrophil and lymphocyte counts following administration of cortisol to horses and foals. , 1983, Equine veterinary journal.

[90]  D. MacDougall Anabolic Steroids. , 1983, The Physician and sportsmedicine.

[91]  H. Schryver,et al.  Calcium metabolism in glucocorticoid-treated pony foals. , 1982, Journal of NutriLife.

[92]  M. Glade,et al.  Glucocorticoid-induced inhibition of osteolysis and the development of osteopetrosis, osteonecrosis and osteoporosis. , 1982, The Cornell veterinarian.

[93]  N. Magnuson,et al.  In vitro and in vivo effects of corticosteroids on peripheral blood lymphocytes from ponies. , 1978, American journal of veterinary research.

[94]  L. Jeffcott,et al.  A critical review of current methods for induction of parturition in the mare. , 1977, Equine veterinary journal.

[95]  J. Sullivan,et al.  The effect of a corticosteroid (dexamethasone), progesterone, oestrogen and prostaglandin F2alpha on gestation length in normal and ovariectomized mares. , 1975, Journal of reproduction and fertility. Supplement.

[96]  S. Targowski Effect of prednisolone on the leukocyte counts of ponies and on the reactivity of lymphocytes in vitro and in vivo , 1975, Infection and immunity.

[97]  M. D. Kirk Field diagnosis and treatment of secondary adrenocortical insufficiency in the horse. , 1974, Veterinary medicine, small animal clinician : VM, SAC.

[98]  J. Sullivan,et al.  Induction of premature parturition by parenteral administration of dexamethasone in the mare. , 1974, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[99]  G. Osbaldiston,et al.  Effect of ACTH and selected glucocorticoids on circulating blood cells in horses. , 1972, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[100]  L. Lerner,et al.  ANTI‐INFLAMMATORY STEROIDS: POTENCY, DURATION AND MODIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES , 1964 .

[101]  J. Wheat The use of hydrocortisone in the treatment of joint and tendon disorders in large animals. , 1955, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.