Intergroup relations: insights from a theoretically integrative approach.

In social psychology, specific research traditions, which often spring up in response to external events or social problems, tend to perpetuate the theoretical assumptions and methodological approaches with which they began. As a result, theories and methods that have proven powerful in 1 topic area are often not applied in other areas, even to conceptually similar issues. The authors adopt a theoretically integrative approach to the topic of intergroup relations. Theories and empirical approaches from the domains of attitudes, impression formation, the self, personal relationships, and norms offer many new insights into problematic issues, such as repeated findings of dissociations among stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. This integrative approach not only promises new theoretical advances, but also suggests numerous potential practical approaches to limiting or reducing destructive patterns of intergroup relations.

[1]  Amy S. Harasty The Interpersonal Nature of Social Stereotypes: Differential Discussion Patterns about In-Groups and Out-Groups , 1997 .

[2]  Thomas F. Pettigrew,et al.  The Ultimate Attribution Error: Extending Allport's Cognitive Analysis of Prejudice , 1979 .

[3]  M. Deutsch,et al.  A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgement. , 1955, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[4]  Claude M. Steele,et al.  Race and the Schooling of Black Americans. , 1992 .

[5]  Phyllis A. Anastasio,et al.  The Common Ingroup Identity Model: Recategorization and the Reduction of Intergroup Bias , 1993 .

[6]  M. Sherif The Psychology of Social Norms , 1937 .

[7]  Shelley E. Taylor,et al.  Illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health. , 1988, Psychological bulletin.

[8]  J. Rempel,et al.  Attitudes: A new look at an old concept. , 1988 .

[9]  Z. Kunda,et al.  The case for motivated reasoning. , 1990, Psychological bulletin.

[10]  R. Cialdini Influence: Science and practice, 3rd ed. , 1993 .

[11]  A. Eagly,et al.  Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles , 1984 .

[12]  P. Linville,et al.  Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don't put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket. , 1985 .

[13]  K. Edwards,et al.  The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Attitude Formation and Change , 1990 .

[14]  S. Schwartz Normative Influences on Altruism , 1977 .

[15]  D. Carlston,et al.  Social cognition of the self. , 1994 .

[16]  William B. Swann,et al.  When our identities are mistaken: Reaffirming self-conceptions through social interaction. , 1982 .

[17]  Vincent Yzerbyt,et al.  Stereotypes and Social Cognition , 1994 .

[18]  Leonard Berkowitz,et al.  WEAPONS AS AGGRESSION-ELICITING STIMULI. , 1967 .

[19]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. , 1988, Psychological bulletin.

[20]  Stephen C. Wright,et al.  The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. , 1997 .

[21]  A. Isen,et al.  Group Representations and Intergroup Bias: Positive Affect, Similarity, and Group Size , 1995 .

[22]  E. Diener Deindividuation, self-awareness, and disinhibition. , 1979 .

[23]  Judith M. Tanur,et al.  Questions About Questions: Inquiries into the Cognitive Bases of Surveys , 1993 .

[24]  S. Folkman,et al.  Coping as a mediator of emotion. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[25]  Jeffry A. Simpson,et al.  The Dissolution of Romantic Relationships: Factors Involved in Relationship Stability and Emotional Distress , 1987 .

[26]  R. LaPiere Attitudes vs Actions. 1934. , 1934, International journal of epidemiology.

[27]  R. Fazio Multiple Processes by which Attitudes Guide Behavior: The Mode Model as an Integrative Framework , 1990 .

[28]  J. Krueger Personal beliefs and cultural stereotypes about racial characteristics. , 1996 .

[29]  K. Bartholomew,et al.  Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model. , 1991, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[30]  C. Crandall,et al.  The Ideology of Anti‐Fat Attitudes1 , 1990 .

[31]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research , 1977 .

[32]  Timothy D. Wilson,et al.  Attitudes as temporary constructions , 1992 .

[33]  G. Stasser,et al.  Information sampling in structured and unstructured discussions of three- and six-person groups. , 1989 .

[34]  S. Chaiken Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. , 1980 .

[35]  John H. Harvey,et al.  Perspectives on Close Relationships , 1993 .

[36]  Alice H. Eagly,et al.  Cognitive and affective bases of attitudes toward social groups and social policies , 1994 .

[37]  Robert A. Baron,et al.  Effects of Victim's Pain Cues, Victim's Race, and Level of Prior Instigation upon Physical Aggression , 1979 .

[38]  G. Fletcher,et al.  Cognition in Close Relationships , 1992 .

[39]  J. Darley,et al.  Expectancy confirmation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. , 1980 .

[40]  L. Berkowitz,et al.  Aggression: Its Causes, Consequences, and Control. , 1994 .

[41]  T. Tyler,et al.  Intrinsic versus Community-Based Justice Models: When Does Group Membership Matter?. , 1990 .

[42]  R. Zajonc Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. , 1968 .

[43]  J. B. Mcconahay,et al.  Has Racism Declined in America? , 1981 .

[44]  Jack K. Martin,et al.  Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change , 1997 .

[45]  E. Donnerstein,et al.  Variables in interracial aggression: potential ingroup censure. , 1973, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[46]  J. Dovidio,et al.  The aversive form of racism. , 1986 .

[47]  D. Katz THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF ATTITUDES , 1960 .

[48]  Claude M. Steele,et al.  DISSONANCE PROCESSES AS SELF-AFFIRMATION , 1983 .

[49]  G. W. Fischer,et al.  Exemplar and abstraction models of perceived group variability and stereotypicality. , 1993 .

[50]  D. Massey American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass , 1993 .

[51]  Deborah A. Prentice,et al.  Asymmetries in Attachments to Groups and to their Members: Distinguishing between Common-Identity and Common-Bond Groups , 1994 .

[52]  D. Katz,et al.  Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. , 1933 .

[53]  R. Petty,et al.  The gradual threshold model of ambivalence: relating the positive and negative bases of attitudes to subjective ambivalence. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[54]  Richard S. Lazarus,et al.  On the Primacy of Cognition. , 1984 .

[55]  Patricia G. Devine,et al.  Social cognition: Impact on social psychology. , 1994 .

[56]  Serge Moscovici,et al.  Studies in social influence: V. Minority influence and conversion behavior in a perceptual task , 1980 .

[57]  M. Hewstone,et al.  Intergroup attributions and affective consequences in majority and minority groups , 1993 .

[58]  M. Hogg,et al.  Intergroup behaviour, self-stereotyping and the salience of social categories , 1987 .

[59]  Mark P. Zanna,et al.  Values, stereotypes, and emotions as determinants of intergroup attitudes. , 1993 .

[60]  W. Crano,et al.  Context/Categorization Model of Social Influence: Minority and Majority Influence in the Formation of a Novel Response Norm , 1994 .

[61]  Lynn E. Miller,et al.  Individual differences in attitudinal versus normative determination of behavior , 1986 .

[62]  F. H. Hankins,et al.  The Psychology of Social Norms , 1937 .

[63]  Sigmund Freud,et al.  Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego , 1924 .

[64]  A. Azzi Procedural Justice and the Allocation of Power in Intergroup Relations: Studies in the United States and South Africa , 1992 .

[65]  M. Snyder,et al.  On the functions of stereotypes and prejudice , 1994 .

[66]  B. Latané,et al.  The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? , 1972 .

[67]  Robert S. Baron,et al.  The forgotten variable in conformity research: Impact of task importance on social influence. , 1996 .

[68]  C. Judd,et al.  Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures. , 1997, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[69]  D. Hamilton,et al.  Stereotypes and stereotyping: An overview of the cognitive approach. , 1986 .

[70]  R. Cialdini,et al.  Basking in Reflected Glory: Three (Football) Field Studies , 1976 .

[71]  Greg W. Schmidt,et al.  An Attribution-Affect-Action Theory of Behavior , 1988 .

[72]  J. Dovidio,et al.  The effects of race, status, and ability on helping behavior. , 1981 .

[73]  Alice H. Eagly,et al.  Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context. , 1989 .

[74]  Y. Amir,et al.  Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. , 1969, Psychological bulletin.

[75]  Deborah A. Prentice,et al.  Collective Errors and Errors about the Collective , 1994 .

[76]  K. Gergen,et al.  Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. , 1970, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[77]  A. O'Leary,et al.  Stress, emotion, and human immune function. , 1990, Psychological bulletin.

[78]  M. Hogg,et al.  Social identity theory: Constructive and critical advances. , 1991 .

[79]  R. Baron Aggression as a function of magnitude of victim's pain cues, level of prior anger arousal, and aggressor-victim similarity. , 1971, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[80]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior , 1980 .

[81]  L. Downing,et al.  Deindividuation and valence of cues: effects on prosocial and antisocial behavior. , 1979, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[82]  C. Hoffman,et al.  Gender stereotypes : perception or rationalization? , 1990 .

[83]  P. N. Shapiro,et al.  Effects of anxiety on impression formation in a group context: An anxiety-assimilation hypothesis , 1989 .

[84]  Patricia G. Devine,et al.  The Role of Discrepancy-Associated Affect in Prejudice Reduction , 1993 .

[85]  F. Rhodewalt,et al.  Effects of self-presentation on the phenomenal self. , 1986 .

[86]  C. Carver,et al.  Attention and Self-Regulation: A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior , 1981 .

[87]  Dalmas A. Taylor,et al.  Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy. , 1989 .

[88]  M. Hogg Group Cohesiveness: A Critical Review and Some New Directions , 1993 .

[89]  Susan T. Fiske,et al.  Affective and semantic components in political person perception. , 1982 .

[90]  F. Heider,et al.  Principles of topological psychology , 1936 .

[91]  Naomi Ellemers,et al.  PERCEIVED INTRAGROUP VARIABILITY AS A FUNCTION OF GROUP STATUS AND IDENTIFICATION , 1995 .

[92]  C. Macrae,et al.  Stereotypes in thought and deed: Social-cognitive origins of intergroup discrimination. , 1998 .

[93]  S. Read,et al.  Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. , 1990, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[94]  M. Brewer A dual process model of impression formation. , 1988 .

[95]  R. Fazio,et al.  Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: a bona fide pipeline? , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[96]  A. Eagly,et al.  Gender Stereotypes and Attitudes Toward Women and Men , 1989 .

[97]  William J. McGuire,et al.  Explorations in Political Psychology , 1995 .

[98]  S. Chaiken,et al.  The psychology of attitudes. , 1993 .

[99]  John H. Lingle,et al.  Retrieval selectivity in memory-based impression judgments. , 1979 .

[100]  Kenneth A. Graetz,et al.  Individual-group discontinuity from the differing perspectives of Campbell's Realistic Group Conflict Theory and Tajfel and Turner's Social Identity Theory. , 1992 .

[101]  Thomas F. Pettigrew,et al.  Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe , 1995 .

[102]  E. Higgins,et al.  Handbook of motivation and cognition : foundations of social behavior , 1991 .

[103]  Craig A. Smith,et al.  Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[104]  E. Suchman,et al.  The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life. , 1949 .

[105]  H. Reis,et al.  Intimacy as an interpersonal process. , 1988 .

[106]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches , 1981 .

[107]  M. Schaller,et al.  Illusory correlation and social categorization: Toward an integration of motivational and cognitive factors in stereotype formation. , 1989 .

[108]  Ervin Staub,et al.  Moral Exclusion, Personal Goal Theory, and Extreme Destructiveness , 1990 .

[109]  R. Minard Race Relationships in the Pocahontas Coal Field , 1952 .

[110]  C. Carver,et al.  Attention and self-regulation , 1981 .

[111]  Deborah A. Prentice,et al.  Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: some consequences of misperceiving the social norm. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[112]  Charles Stangor,et al.  Affective and cognitive determinants of prejudice , 1991 .

[113]  D. Hamilton Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior , 1981 .

[114]  P. Thagard,et al.  FORMING IMPRESSIONS FROM STEREOTYPES, TRAITS, AND BEHAVIORS : A PARALLEL-CONSTRAINT-SATISFACTION THEORY , 1996 .

[115]  John W. Shepherd,et al.  The Effects of Source Credibility on the Dilution of Stereotype-Based Judgments , 1992 .

[116]  C. Stangor,et al.  Stereotypes and Stereotyping , 1996 .

[117]  P. N. Shapiro,et al.  Role of competition-induced anxiety in limiting the beneficial impact of positive behavior by an out-group member. , 1989, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[118]  D. Hamilton,et al.  Perceiving persons and groups. , 1996, Psychological review.

[119]  K. Dodge,et al.  Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children , 1990 .

[120]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates. , 1994 .

[121]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  Low-ball procedure for producing compliance: Commitment then cost. , 1978 .

[122]  M. Hogg,et al.  Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. , 1989 .

[123]  Robert B. Cialdini,et al.  The transsituational influence of social norms. , 1993 .

[124]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Intergroup aggression: its predictors and distinctness from in-group bias. , 1989, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[125]  John C. Turner,et al.  Self and Collective: Cognition and Social Context , 1994 .

[126]  Peter Suedfeld,et al.  Integrative Complexity of Communications in International Crises , 1977 .

[127]  David G. Myers,et al.  Group-Induced Polarization in Simulated Juries , 1976 .

[128]  R. Sternberg,et al.  The Psychology of Love , 1988 .

[129]  Peter L. Sheras,et al.  "From Jerusalem to Jericho": A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. , 1973 .

[130]  M. Gurtman,et al.  Us and them: Social categorization and the process of intergroup bias. , 1990 .

[131]  G. Bodenhausen Emotions, Arousal, and Stereotypic Judgments: A Heuristic Model of Affect and Stereotyping , 1993 .

[132]  Rick H. Hoyle,et al.  Individual-group discontinuity: The role of a consensus rule , 1988 .

[133]  M. Brewer In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. , 1979 .

[134]  J. Bailey,et al.  Cross-Racial Appraisal as Related to Attitude Ambivalence and Cognitive Complexity , 1991 .

[135]  S. Gangestad,et al.  Choosing social situations: Two investigations of self-monitoring processes , 1982 .

[136]  K. Deaux,et al.  Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components and gender label. , 1984 .

[137]  H. Markus,et al.  THE DYNAMIC SELF-CONCEPT: A Social Psychological Perspective , 1987 .

[138]  Dominic Abrams,et al.  Towards a single-process uncertainty-reduction model of social motivation in groups. , 1993 .

[139]  F. Crosby,et al.  Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: A literature review. , 1980 .

[140]  H. Kelman PROCESSES OF OPINION CHANGE , 1961 .

[141]  Joshua Aronson,et al.  From Dissonance To Disidentification: Selectivity in the Self-Affirmation Process , 1995 .

[142]  D. M. Kirby,et al.  Ethnic Stereotypes: An Alternative Assessment Technique, the Stereotype Differential , 1972 .

[143]  L. A. Sullivan,et al.  Cognition and affect in evaluations of stereotyped group members. , 1989, The Journal of social psychology.

[144]  C. Daniel Batson,et al.  Is Empathic Emotion a Source of Altruistic Motivation , 1981 .

[145]  R. Lance Shotland,et al.  Bystander response to an assault: When a man attacks a woman. , 1976 .

[146]  S. Fiske,et al.  The Handbook of Social Psychology , 1935 .

[147]  T. Adorno The Authoritarian Personality , 1950 .

[148]  A. Hartry,et al.  A factor-analytic study of the double standard in attitudes toward U.S. and Russian actions. , 1968, Behavioral science.

[149]  T. F. Cash,et al.  Components of Gender Stereotypes , 1985 .

[150]  D. Krebs,et al.  Altruism: An examination of the concept and a review of the literature. , 1970 .

[151]  T. Newcomb,et al.  Readings in Social Psychology , 1948, Teachers College Record.

[152]  Bell,et al.  Ambivalence and Persuasion: The Processing of Messages about Immigrant Groups , 1996, Journal of experimental social psychology.

[153]  Bernd Wittenbrink,et al.  Creating Social Reality: Informational Social Influence and the Content of Stereotypic Beliefs , 1996 .

[154]  K. Deaux,et al.  Parameters of social identity , 1995 .

[155]  M. Lepper,et al.  Typicality effects in attitude-behavior consistency : effects of category discrimination and category knowledge , 1991 .

[156]  D. Gilbert,et al.  The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. , 1991 .

[157]  A. Aron,et al.  Love and the expansion of self: Understanding attraction and satisfaction. , 1988 .

[158]  Mark Schaller,et al.  Dynamic Social Impact and the Evolution of Social Representations: A Natural History of Stereotypes. , 1996 .

[159]  Michael A. Hogg,et al.  The Social Psychology of Group Cohesiveness: From Attraction to Social Identity , 1992 .

[160]  K. Dodge,et al.  Biased decision-making processes in aggressive boys. , 1981, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[161]  Irwin Katz,et al.  Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. , 1988 .

[162]  Eliot R. Smith Procedural knowledge and processing strategies in social cognition. , 1994 .

[163]  M. Snyder On the Self-Fulfilling Nature of Social Stereotypes. , 1977 .

[164]  C. Steele,et al.  Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[165]  M. Banaji,et al.  The role of stereotyping in system‐justification and the production of false consciousness , 1994 .

[166]  Lee Jussim,et al.  Social perception and social reality : a reflection-construction model , 1991 .

[167]  Eliot R. Smith,et al.  Knowledge acquisition, accessibility, and use in person perception and stereotyping: simulation with a recurrent connectionist network. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[168]  Shelly Chaiken,et al.  Getting at the truth or getting along: Accuracy- versus impression-motivated heuristic and systematic processing. , 1996 .

[169]  Anne Campbell,et al.  Altruism and Aggression , 1993 .

[170]  W. Froming,et al.  Public and private self-awareness: When personal attitudes conflict with societal expectations , 1982 .

[171]  H. Tajfel Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. , 1978 .

[172]  T. K. Srull,et al.  Content and Process Specificity in the Effects of Prior Experiences , 1990 .

[173]  W. Swann,et al.  A battle of wills: self-verification versus behavioral confirmation. , 1984, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[174]  J. Tomaka,et al.  Attitude accessibility as a moderator of autonomic reactivity during decision making. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[175]  K. Dodge,et al.  Hostile attributional biases among aggressive boys are exacerbated under conditions of threats to the self. , 1987, Child development.

[176]  Sharon Shavitt,et al.  The role of attitude objects in attitude functions , 1990 .

[177]  Eliot R. Smith Social Identity and Social Emotions: Toward New Conceptualizations of Prejudice , 1993 .

[178]  C. Steeh,et al.  Stereotypes and Segregation: Neighborhoods in the Detroit Area , 1994, American Journal of Sociology.

[179]  B. Major,et al.  From social inequality to personal entitlement: the role of social comparisons, legitimacy appraisals, and group membership , 1994 .

[180]  L. Johnston,et al.  A Dual Processing Approach to Stereotype Change , 1995 .

[181]  I. Ajzen,et al.  Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. , 1977 .

[182]  Mark Schaller,et al.  In-group favoritism and statistical reasoning in social inference : implications for formation and maintenance of group stereotypes , 1992 .

[183]  M. Rodin,et al.  Asymmetry in prejudice attribution , 1990 .

[184]  Steven L. Neuberg,et al.  A Continuum of Impression Formation, from Category-Based to Individuating Processes: Influences of Information and Motivation on Attention and Interpretation , 1990 .

[185]  R. Nisbett,et al.  Anti-black prejudice as a function of exposure to the negative behavior of a single black person. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[186]  Irwin Katz,et al.  Stigma: A Social Psychological Analysis , 1981 .

[187]  Carl A. Kallgren,et al.  A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Reevaluation of the Role of Norms in Human Behavior , 1991 .

[188]  S. Moscovici,et al.  The group as a polarizer of attitudes. , 1969 .

[189]  K. Deaux Reconstructing Social Identity , 1993 .

[190]  M. Brewer The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time , 1991 .

[191]  A. Isen,et al.  Positive affect, cognition, and the reduction of intergroup bias. , 1998 .

[192]  Myra Sadker,et al.  Failing at fairness : how America's schools cheat girls , 1995 .

[193]  L. Lemyre,et al.  Intergroup Discrimination and Self-Esteem in the Minimal Group Paradigm , 1985 .

[194]  S. Worchel,et al.  The Social psychology of intergroup relations , 1979 .

[195]  J. J. Seta,et al.  Big fish in small ponds: a social hierarchy analysis of intergroup bias. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[196]  J. Dovidio,et al.  Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism , 1986 .

[197]  C. Sedikides,et al.  Perceptions of Group Variability: Moving from an Uncertain Crawl to a Purposeful Stride , 1993 .

[198]  R. Cialdini Influence: Science and Practice , 1984 .

[199]  Denise M. Driscoll,et al.  On the Functional Value of Attitudes: The Influence of Accessible Attitudes on the Ease and Quality of Decision Making , 1992 .

[200]  S. Chaiken,et al.  The Automatic Evaluation Effect: Unconditional Automatic Attitude Activation with a Pronunciation Task , 1996 .

[201]  C. F. Kao,et al.  Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: An individual difference perspective. , 1986 .

[202]  Robert B. Cialdini,et al.  The economics of empathic helping: Support for a mood management motive , 1988 .

[203]  R. W. Rogers,et al.  Deindividuation and anger-mediated interracial aggression: Unmasking regressive racism. , 1981 .

[204]  A. McLachlan The effects of two forms of decision reappraisal on the perception of pertinent arguments , 1986 .

[205]  W. Stephan,et al.  Cognition and affect in stereotyping: Parallel interactive networks. , 1993 .

[206]  T. K. Srull,et al.  Person memory and judgment. , 1989, Psychological review.

[207]  R. Baron The control of human aggression: An optimistic perspective. , 1983 .

[208]  N. Weinstein Unrealistic optimism about future life events , 1980 .

[209]  Charles M. Judd,et al.  Measures and models of perceived group variability. , 1990 .

[210]  C. Hazan,et al.  Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[211]  Dominic Abrams,et al.  Group motivation: Social psychological perspectives. , 1993 .

[212]  L. Festinger A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance , 1957 .

[213]  Rupert Brown,et al.  Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable? , 1997 .

[214]  S. Cook The Effect of Unintended Interracial Contact Upon Racial Interaction and Attitude Change. Final Report. , 1971 .

[215]  Reid Hastie,et al.  Creating complex social conjunction categories from simple categories , 1990 .

[216]  A. Tesser Reproductions Supplied by Edrs Are the Best That Can Be Made * * from the Original Document. toward a Self-evaluation Maintenance Model of Social Behavior* , 2007 .

[217]  Muzafer Sherif,et al.  In common predicament : social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation , 1967 .

[218]  L. Brooks,et al.  Episodic effects on picture identification: implications for theories of concept learning and theories of memory. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[219]  Rick H. Hoyle,et al.  Individual versus group discontinuity: The role of intergroup contact. , 1987 .

[220]  Jim Sidanius,et al.  The psychology of group conflict and the dynamics of oppression: A social dominance perspective. , 1993 .

[221]  I. Ayres Fair Driving: Gender and Race Discrimination in Retail Car Negotiations , 1991 .

[222]  D. Mackie,et al.  Majority and Minority Influence: A Judgmental Process Analysis , 1990 .

[223]  N. Ellemers,et al.  Bias in Intergroup Perceptions: Balancing Group Identity with Social Reality , 1997 .

[224]  Rick H. Hoyle,et al.  Individual-Group Discontinuity as a Function of Fear and Greed , 1990 .

[225]  R. Tourangeau,et al.  Cognitive Processes Underlying Context Effects in Attitude Measurement , 1988 .

[226]  C. N. Macrae,et al.  Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound , 1994 .

[227]  S. Weitz,et al.  Attitude, voice, and behavior: a repressed affect model of interracial interaction. , 1972, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[228]  M. Kite Individual Differences in Males' Reactions to Gay Males and Lesbians1 , 1992 .

[229]  A. Aron,et al.  Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness , 1992 .

[230]  T. K. Srull,et al.  Handbook of Social Cognition , 1993 .

[231]  L. Berkowitz Frustration-aggression hypothesis: examination and reformulation. , 1989, Psychological bulletin.

[232]  Roberta L. Klatzky,et al.  Traits and social stereotypes: Levels of categorization in person perception. , 1987 .

[233]  C. Judd,et al.  Stereotypes and ethnocentrism: diverging interethnic perceptions of African American and white American youth. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[234]  Russell H. Fazio,et al.  Toward a process model of the attitude-behavior relation: Accessing one's attitude upon mere observation of the attitude object. , 1983 .

[235]  A. Aron,et al.  Close Relationships as Including Other in the Self , 1991 .

[236]  D. Bem Self-Perception Theory , 1972 .

[237]  B. Simon,et al.  Self-stereotyping and social context: the effects of relative in-group size and in-group status. , 1994, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[238]  J. Bailey,et al.  When Racial Ambivalence Evokes Negative Affect, Using a Disguised Measure of Mood , 1992 .

[239]  A. Bandura Aggression: a social learning analysis , 1971 .

[240]  Audrey J. Murrell,et al.  How does cooperation reduce intergroup bias , 1990 .

[241]  A. Elliot,et al.  Prejudice with and without compunction , 1991 .

[242]  J. Brigham,et al.  College Students’ Racial Attitudes , 1993 .

[243]  C. Hazan,et al.  Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective. , 1990 .

[244]  Mark P. Zanna,et al.  The Nonverbal Mediation of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Interracial Interaction. , 1974 .

[245]  H. Tajfel Social identity and intergroup relations , 1985 .

[246]  C. Crandall Prejudice against fat people: ideology and self-interest. , 1994, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[247]  J. Pennebaker Confession, Inhibition, and Disease , 1989 .

[248]  A. Greenwald The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. , 1980 .

[249]  Mark R. Lepper,et al.  Attitude prototypes as determinants of attitude-behavior consistency. , 1984, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[250]  R. Larsen,et al.  Promises and problems with the circumplex model of emotion. , 1992 .

[251]  E. Donnerstein,et al.  Variables in interracial aggression: anonymity, expected retaliation, and a riot. , 1972, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[252]  Tom R. Tyler,et al.  Psychological models of the justice motive: Antecedents of distributive and procedural justice. , 1994 .

[253]  J. Stoner A comparison of individual and group decisions involving risk , 1961 .

[254]  S. Otten,et al.  Evaluation of aggressive interactions in interpersonal and intergroup contexts , 1995 .

[255]  D. Hamilton,et al.  Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception: A cognitive basis of stereotypic judgments. , 1976 .

[256]  Susan T. Fiske,et al.  Category-based versus piecemeal-based affective responses: Developments in schema-triggered affect. , 1986 .

[257]  James M. Jones Prejudice and Racism , 1972, The SAGE Encyclopedia of the Sociology of Religion.

[258]  M. Banaji,et al.  Automatic and Controlled Processes in Stereotype Priming , 1996 .

[259]  Dale T. Miller,et al.  Combining Social Concepts: The Role of Causal Reasoning , 1990, Cogn. Sci..

[260]  Mark H. Davis,et al.  Effect of perspective taking on the cognitive representation of persons: a merging of self and other. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[261]  I. Ajzen The theory of planned behavior , 1991 .

[262]  R. Hastie,et al.  The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the judgment task is memory-based or on-line , 1986 .

[263]  Russell H. Fazio,et al.  New technologies for the direct and indirect assessment of attitudes. , 1992 .

[264]  J. B. Mcconahay,et al.  Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. , 1986 .

[265]  Linda A. Jackson,et al.  Cognition, Affect, and Behavior in the Prediction of Group Attitudes , 1996 .

[266]  J. Dovidio,et al.  Racial stereotypes: The contents of their cognitive representations☆ , 1986 .

[267]  Audrey J. Murrell,et al.  Reducing intergroup bias: The benefits of recategorization. , 1989 .

[268]  Robert B. Cialdini,et al.  Transgression and Altruism: A Case for Hedonism. , 1973 .

[269]  P. Devine Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. , 1989 .

[270]  E. Aronson The Jigsaw Classroom , 1978 .

[271]  Diane M. Mackie,et al.  Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception. , 1993 .

[272]  T. Pettigrew Personality and sociocultural factors in intergroup attitudes: a cross-national comparison , 1958 .

[273]  Jerome S. Bruner,et al.  Opinions and Personality. , 1956 .

[274]  Stephen J. Read,et al.  Acquiring Self-Knowledge: The Search for Feedback That Fits , 1981 .

[275]  Eliot R. Smith,et al.  An In-Group Becomes Part of the Self: Response Time Evidence , 1996 .

[276]  C. Carver,et al.  Favorable evaluations of Blacks and the handicapped: Positive prejudice, unconscious denial, or social desirability? , 1978 .

[277]  David A. Schroeder,et al.  The arousal: Cost-reward model and the process of intervention , 1991 .

[278]  Richard D. Ashmore,et al.  Social Psychology; Social Influence, Attitude Change, Group Processes, and Prejudice , 1970 .

[279]  S. Milgram BEHAVIORAL STUDY OF OBEDIENCE. , 1963, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[280]  L. Resnick,et al.  Social foundations of cognition. , 1993, Annual review of psychology.

[281]  N. Frijda,et al.  Relations among emotion, appraisal, and emotional action readiness , 1989 .

[282]  G. Āllport The Nature of Prejudice , 1954 .

[283]  Dale T. Miller,et al.  Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives , 1986 .

[284]  Susan V. Opotow Moral Exclusion and Injustice: An Introduction , 1990 .

[285]  L. Hagendoorn Intergroup Biases in Multiple Group Systems: The Perception of Ethnic Hierarchies , 1995 .

[286]  E. Higgins,et al.  Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. , 1987, Psychological review.

[287]  S. Moscovici Notes towards a description of Social Representations , 1988 .

[288]  J. Simpson Influence of Attachment Styles on Romantic Relationships , 1990 .

[289]  A. Dijker Emotional reactions to ethnic minorities , 1987 .

[290]  M. Conway,et al.  Remembering one''s own past: The construction of personal histories , 1986 .

[291]  A G Greenwald,et al.  Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[292]  R. Wyer,et al.  The recall of information about persons and groups , 1982 .

[293]  E. Suchman,et al.  The American soldier: Adjustment during army life. (Studies in social psychology in World War II), Vol. 1 , 1949 .

[294]  Eliot R. Smith,et al.  Exemplar-Based Model of Social Judgment , 1992 .

[295]  Carl A. Kallgren,et al.  A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. , 1990 .

[296]  M. Biernat,et al.  Violating American Values: A “Value Congruence” Approach to Understanding Outgroup Attitudes , 1996 .

[297]  G. Fletcher,et al.  Attribution processes in close relationships. , 1991 .

[298]  J. Crocker,et al.  Prejudice and Ingroup Favoritism in a Minimal Intergroup Situation , 1985 .

[299]  Edward Alsworth Ross,et al.  Social psychology, an outline and source book. , 1908 .

[300]  Thomas E. Nelson,et al.  Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Labeling Effects: Sources of Bias in Person Perception , 1995 .