The sixth and seventh cholera pandemics are due to independent clones separately derived from environmental, nontoxigenic, non-O1 Vibrio cholerae

The DNA sequences of the asd genes from 45 isolates of Vibrio cholerae (19 clinical O1 isolates, 2 environmental nontoxigenic O1 isolates, and 24 isolates with different non-O1 antigens) were determined. No differences were found within either sixth- or seventh-pandemic isolates; however, variation was found between the two forms and among the non-O1 isolates. O139 isolates had sequences identical to those of seventh-pandemic isolates. Phylogenetic trees with Vibrio mimicus as the outgroup suggest that the sixth-pandemic, seventh-pandemic, and U.S. Gulf isolates are three clones that have evolved independently from different lineages of environmental, nontoxigenic, non-O1 V. cholerae isolates. There is evidence for horizontal transfer of O antigen, since isolates with nearly identical asd sequences had different O antigens, and isolates with the O1 antigen did not cluster together but were found in different lineages. We also found evidence for recombination events within the asd gene of V. cholerae. V. cholerae may have a higher level of genetic exchange and a lower level of clonality than species such as Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli.

[1]  Le Cholera , 1919, The Indian Medical Gazette.

[2]  C. Roy,et al.  Variability in the haemolytic property of El Tor vibrios. , 1962, Annals of biochemistry and experimental medicine.

[3]  C. Roy,et al.  HAEMOLYTIC AND NON-HAEMOLYTIC EL TOR VIBRIOS. , 1963, Annals of biochemistry and experimental medicine.

[4]  J C FEELEY,et al.  Classification of Vibrio cholerae (Vibrio comma), Including El Tor Vibrios, by Infrasubspecific Characteristics , 1965, Journal of bacteriology.

[5]  W. Mosley,et al.  Endemic cholera in rural East Pakistan. , 1969, American journal of epidemiology.

[6]  M. Mazzotti,et al.  Epidemiology of cholera in Italy in 1973. , 1974, Lancet.

[7]  P. Blake,et al.  Cholera in Portugal , 1975 .

[8]  P. Blake,et al.  Cholera in Portugal, 1974.I. Modes of transmission. , 1977, American journal of epidemiology.

[9]  P. Blake,et al.  MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF CHOLERA IN A NEWLY INFECTED POPULATION ON AN ATOLL: IMPLICATIONS FOR CONTROL MEASURES , 1979, The Lancet.

[10]  S. Salmaso,et al.  RECURRENCE OF PELECYPOD-ASSOCIATED CHOLERA IN SARDINIA , 1980, The Lancet.

[11]  J. Kaper,et al.  Molecular epidemiology of Vibrio cholerae in the U.S. Gulf Coast , 1982, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[12]  J. Mekalanos,et al.  Cholera toxin genes: nucleotide sequence, deletion analysis and vaccine development , 1983, Nature.

[13]  J. Stephens,et al.  Statistical methods of DNA sequence analysis: detection of intragenic recombination or gene conversion. , 1985, Molecular biology and evolution.

[14]  J. Mekalanos,et al.  Effect of a recA mutation on cholera toxin gene amplification and deletion events , 1986, Journal of bacteriology.

[15]  Y. Takeda,et al.  Toxin profiles of Vibrio cholerae non-O1 from environmental sources in Calcutta, India , 1988, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[16]  R. Bryant,et al.  Current perspectives on the epidemiology and pathogenesis of clinically significant Vibrio spp , 1988, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[17]  K. Mullis,et al.  Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. , 1988, Science.

[18]  R. Colwell,et al.  Numerical taxonomy and deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness of environmental and clinical Vibrio species isolated in Indonesia , 1989 .

[19]  M. Nei,et al.  A simple method for estimating average number of nucleotide substitutions within and between populations from restriction data. , 1990, Genetics.

[20]  S. Koblavi,et al.  Clonal diversity of Vibrio cholerae O1 evidenced by rRNA gene restriction patterns. , 1990, Research in microbiology.

[21]  P. Reeves,et al.  Molecular cloning and expression in Escherichia coli K‐12 of the rfb gene cluster determining the O antigen of an E. coli O111 strain , 1991, Molecular microbiology.

[22]  C. A. Salles,et al.  Identification of Vibrio cholerae by enzyme electrophoresis. , 1991, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[23]  T. Ramamurthy,et al.  and other vibrios associated with paddy field cultured prawns , 1991 .

[24]  R. Selander,et al.  Evolutionary genetics of the proline permease gene (putP) and the control region of the proline utilization operon in populations of Salmonella and Escherichia coli , 1992, Journal of bacteriology.

[25]  Wayne P. Maddison,et al.  Macclade: Analysis of Phylogeny and Character Evolution/Version 3 , 1992 .

[26]  Rita R. Colwell,et al.  The Ecology of Vibrio cholerae , 1992 .

[27]  R. Sakazaki.  Bacteriology of Vibrio and Related Organisms , 1992 .

[28]  T. Popović,et al.  Epidemiologic application of a standardized ribotype scheme for Vibrio cholerae O1 , 1993, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[29]  R. Bradley Sack,et al.  Large outbreak of clinical cholera due to Vibrio cholerae non-01 in Bangladesh , 1993, The Lancet.

[30]  J. M. Smith,et al.  How clonal are bacteria? , 1993, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[31]  Y. Takeda,et al.  Virulence patterns of Vibrio cholerae non-O1 strains isolated from hospitalised patients with acute diarrhoea in Calcutta, India. , 1993, Journal of medical microbiology.

[32]  C Carrillo,et al.  The molecular epidemiology of cholera in Latin America. , 1993, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[33]  Amit Pal,et al.  Emergence of novel strain of Vibrio cholerae with epidemic potential in southern and eastern India , 1993, The Lancet.

[34]  A. Faruque,et al.  Large epidemic of cholera-like disease in Bangladesh caused by Vibrio cholerae 0139 synonym Bengal , 1993, The Lancet.

[35]  P. Reeves,et al.  Sequence variation in Shigella sonnei (Sonnei), a pathogenic clone of Escherichia coli, over four continents and 41 years , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[36]  T. Popović,et al.  Molecular Epidemiology of Cholera , 1994 .

[37]  P. R. Reeves,et al.  MULTICOMP: a program for preparing sequence data for phylogenetic analysis , 1994, Comput. Appl. Biosci..

[38]  Y. Takeda,et al.  Spread of Vibrio cholerae O139 Bengal in India. , 1994, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[39]  M. Waldor,et al.  ToxR regulates virulence gene expression in non-O1 strains of Vibrio cholerae that cause epidemic cholera , 1994, Infection and Immunity.

[40]  T. Barrett,et al.  Molecular characterization of Vibrio cholerae O1 strains by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[41]  S. Faruque,et al.  Molecular analysis of rRNA and cholera toxin genes carried by the new epidemic strain of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O139 synonym Bengal , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[42]  M. Levine,et al.  Potential for reacquisition of cholera enterotoxin genes by attenuated Vibrio cholerae vaccine strain CVD 103-HgR , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[43]  P. Reeves,et al.  Molecular evolution of the seventh-pandemic clone of Vibrio cholerae and its relationship to other pandemic and epidemic V. cholerae isolates , 1994, Journal of bacteriology.

[44]  Ø. Olsvik,et al.  Vibrio cholerae and cholera : molecular to global perspectives , 1994 .

[45]  A. C. Ghose,et al.  Epidemic isolates of Vibrio cholerae 0139 express antigenically distinct types of colonization pili. , 1994, FEMS microbiology letters.

[46]  K. Calia,et al.  Comparison of Vibrio cholerae O139 with V. cholerae O1 classical and El Tor biotypes , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[47]  T. Whittam,et al.  Molecular genetic basis of allelic polymorphism in malate dehydrogenase (mdh) in natural populations of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.